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DOE OSTI2012

THE CURIOUS CONUNDRUM REGARDING SULFUR ABUNDANCES IN PLANETARY NEBULAE

Sulfur abundances derived from optical emission line measurements and ionization correction factors (ICFs) in planetary nebulae are systematically lower than expected for the objects' metallicities. We have carefully considered a large range of explanations for this 'sulfur anomaly', including: (1) correlations between the size of the sulfur deficit and numerous nebular and central star properties, (2) ICFs which undercorrect for unobserved ions, (3) effects of dielectronic recombination on the sulfur ionization balance, (4) sequestering of S into dust and/or molecules, and (5) excessive destruction of S or production of O by asymptotic giant branch stars. It appears that all but the second scenario can be ruled out. However, we find evidence that the sulfur deficit is generally reduced but not eliminated when S{sup +3} abundances determined directly from IR measurements are used in place of the customary sulfur ICF. We tentatively conclude that the sulfur anomaly is caused by the inability of commonly used ICFs to properly correct for populations of ionization stages higher than S{sup +2}.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

BUBBLES AND KNOTS IN THE KINEMATICAL STRUCTURE OF THE BIPOLAR PLANETARY NEBULA NGC 2818

High-resolution Hubble Space Telescope archive imaging and high-dispersion spectroscopy are used to study the complex morphological and kinematical structure of the planetary nebula, NGC 2818. We analyze narrowband H{alpha}, [O III], [N II], [S II], and He II images, addressing important morphological features. Ground-based long-slit echelle spectra were obtained crossing NGC 2818 at five different positions to precisely determine kinematical features in the structure of the nebula. A distance of 2.5 kpc was used to determine physical scales. Constructing models to fit the data with modern computational tools, we find NGC 2818 is composed of (1) a non-uniform bipolar structure with a semimajor axis of 0.92 pc (75''), possibly deformed by the stellar wind, (2) a 0.17 pc (14'') diameter central region, which is potentially the remnant of an equatorial enhancement, and (3) a great number of cometary knots. These knots are preferentially located inside a radius of 0.24 pc (20'') around the central star. The major axis of the main structure is oriented at i {approx_equal} 60 Degree-Sign with respect to the line of sight and at P.A. = +89 Degree-Sign on the plane of the sky. Expansion velocities of this nebula are V{sub pol} = 105 km s{sup -1} and V{sub eq} = 20 km s{sup -1}, which lead to our estimate of the kinematical age of {tau}{sub k} {approx_equal} 8400 {+-} 3400 yr (assuming homologous expansion). Our observations do not support the idea that high-velocity collimated ejections are responsible for the formation of microstructures inside the nebula. We determine the systemic velocity of NGC 2818 to be V{sub HEL} = +26 {+-} 2 km s{sup -1}.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

RESOLVING THE ELECTRON TEMPERATURE DISCREPANCIES IN H II REGIONS AND PLANETARY NEBULAE: {kappa}-DISTRIBUTED ELECTRONS

The measurement of electron temperatures and metallicities in H II regions and planetary nebulae (PNe) has-for several decades-presented a problem: results obtained using different techniques disagree. What is worse, they disagree consistently. There have been numerous attempts to explain these discrepancies, but none has provided a satisfactory solution to the problem. In this paper, we explore the possibility that electrons in H II regions and PNe depart from a Maxwell-Boltzmann equilibrium energy distribution. We adopt a '{kappa}-distribution' for the electron energies. Such distributions are widely found in solar system plasmas, where they can be directly measured. This simple assumption is able to explain the temperature and metallicity discrepancies in H II regions and PNe arising from the different measurement techniques. We find that the energy distribution does not need to depart dramatically from an equilibrium distribution. From an examination of data from H II regions and PNe, it appears that {kappa} {approx}> 10 is sufficient to encompass nearly all objects. We argue that the kappa-distribution offers an important new insight into the physics of gaseous nebulae, both in the Milky Way and elsewhere, and one that promises significantly more accurate estimates of temperature and metallicity in these regions.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

LIMITS ON [O III] 5007 EMISSION FROM NGC 4472'S GLOBULAR CLUSTERS: CONSTRAINTS ON PLANETARY NEBULAE AND ULTRALUMINOUS BLACK HOLE X-RAY BINARIES IN GLOBULAR CLUSTERS

We have searched for [O III] 5007 emission in high-resolution spectroscopic data from FLAMES/GIRAFFE Very Large Telescope observations of 174 massive globular clusters (GCs) in NGC 4472. No planetary nebulae (PNe) are observed in these clusters, constraining the number of PNe per bolometric luminosity, {alpha} < 0.8 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup -7} PN/L{sub Sun }. This is significantly lower than the rate predicted from stellar evolution, if all stars produce PNe. Comparing our results to populations of PNe in galaxies, we find most galaxies have a higher {alpha} than these GCs (more PNe per bolometric luminosity-though some massive early-type galaxies do have similarly low {alpha}). The low {alpha} required in these GCs suggests that the number of PNe per bolometric luminosity does not increase strongly with decreasing mass or metallicity of the stellar population. We find no evidence for correlations between the presence of known GC PNe and either the presence of low-mass X-ray binaries (LMXBs) or the stellar interaction rates in the GCs. This, and the low {alpha} observed, suggests that the formation of PNe may not be enhanced in tight binary systems. These data do identify one [O III] emission feature, this is the (previously published) broad [O III] emission from the cluster RZ 2109. This emission is thought to originate from the LMXB in this cluster, which is accreting at super-Eddington rates. The absence of any similar [O III] emission from the other clusters favors the hypothesis that this source is a black hole LMXB, rather than a neutron star LMXB with significant geometric beaming of its X-ray emission.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

THE NATURE OF DUST IN COMPACT GALACTIC PLANETARY NEBULAE FROM SPITZER SPECTRA

We present the Spitzer/Infrared Spectrograph (IRS) spectra of 157 compact Galactic planetary nebulae (PNe). These young PNe provide insight on the effects of dust in early post-asymptotic giant branch evolution, before much of the dust is altered or destroyed by the hardening stellar radiation field. Most of the selected targets have PN-type IRS spectra, while a few turned out to be misclassified stars. We inspected the group properties of the PN spectra and classified them based on the different dust classes (featureless or F, carbon-rich dust or CRD, oxygen-rich dust or ORD, mixed-chemistry dust or MCD) and subclasses (aromatic and aliphatic, and crystalline and amorphous). All PNe are characterized by dust continuum and more than 80% of the sample shows solid-state features above the continuum, in contrast with the Magellanic Cloud sample where only {approx}40% of the entire sample displays solid-state features; this is an indication of the strong link between dust properties and metallicity. The Galactic PNe that show solid-state features are almost equally divided among the CRD, ORD, and MCD. We analyzed dust properties together with other PN properties and found that (1) there is an enhancement of MCD PNe toward the Galactic center, in agreement with studies of Galactic bulge PNe; (2) CRD PNe could be seen as defining an evolutionary sequence, contrary to the ORD and MCD PNe, which are scattered in all evolutionary diagrams; (3) carbon-rich and oxygen-rich grains retain different equilibrium temperatures, as expected from models; and (4) ORD PNe are highly asymmetric, i.e., bipolar or bipolar core, and CRD PNe highly symmetric, i.e., round or elliptical; point symmetry is statistically more common in MCD than in other dust class PNe. By comparing the sample of this paper to that of Magellanic Cloud PNe, we find that the latter sample does not include MCD PNe, and the other dust classes are differently populated, with continuity of the fraction of F, CRD, ORD, and MCD populations from high to low metallicity environments. We also find similar sequences for CRD PNe in the Galactic disk and the Magellanic Clouds, except that the Magellanic Cloud PNe seem to attain higher dust temperatures at similar evolutionary stages, in agreement with the observational findings of smaller dust grains (i.e., lower radiation efficiency) in low metallicity interstellar environments.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

[Fe III] EMISSION LINES IN THE PLANETARY NEBULA NGC 2392

NGC 2392 is a young double-shell planetary nebula (PN). Its intrinsic structure and shaping mechanism are still not fully understood. In this paper we present new spectroscopic observations of NGC 2392. The slits were placed at two different locations to obtain the spectra of the inner and outer regions. Several [Fe III] lines are clearly detected in the inner region. We infer that NGC 2392 might have an intrinsic structure similar to the bipolar nebula Mz 3, which also exhibits a number of [Fe III] lines arising from the central regions. In this scenario, the inner and outer regions of NGC 2392 correspond to the inner lobes and the outer outflows of Mz 3, respectively. We construct a three-dimensional morpho-kinematic model to examine our hypothesis. We also compare the physical conditions and chemical composition of the inner and outer regions, and discuss the implications on the formation of this type of PN.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

REBIRTH OF X-RAY EMISSION FROM THE BORN-AGAIN PLANETARY NEBULA A30

The planetary nebula A30 is believed to have undergone a very late thermal pulse resulting in the ejection of knots of hydrogen-poor material. Using multi-epoch Hubble Space Telescope images, we have detected the angular expansion of these knots and derived an age of 850{sup +280}{sub -150} yr. To investigate the spectral and spatial properties of the soft X-ray emission detected by ROSAT, we have obtained Chandra and XMM-Newton deep observations of A30. The X-ray emission from A30 can be separated into two components: a point source at the central star and diffuse emission associated with the hydrogen-poor knots and the cloverleaf structure inside the nebular shell. To help us assess the role of the current stellar wind in powering this X-ray emission, we have determined the stellar parameters and wind properties of the central star of A30 using a non-LTE model fit to its optical and UV spectra. The spatial distribution and spectral properties of the diffuse X-ray emission are highly suggestive that it is generated by the post-born-again and present fast stellar winds interacting with the hydrogen-poor ejecta of the born-again event. This emission can be attributed to shock-heated plasma, as the hydrogen-poor knots are ablated by the stellar winds, under which circumstances the efficient mass loading of the present fast stellar wind raises its density and damps its velocity to produce the observed diffuse soft X-rays. Charge transfer reactions between the ions of the stellar winds and material of the born-again ejecta have also been considered as a possible mechanism for the production of diffuse X-ray emission, and upper limits on the expected X-ray production by this mechanism have been derived. The origin of the X-ray emission from the central star of A30 is puzzling: shocks in the present fast stellar wind and photospheric emission can be ruled out, while the development of a new, compact hot bubble confining the fast stellar wind seems implausible.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

AN ANALYTIC RADIATIVE-CONVECTIVE MODEL FOR PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES

We present an analytic one-dimensional radiative-convective model of the thermal structure of planetary atmospheres. Our model assumes that thermal radiative transfer is gray and can be represented by the two-stream approximation. Model atmospheres are assumed to be in hydrostatic equilibrium, with a power-law scaling between the atmospheric pressure and the gray thermal optical depth. The convective portions of our models are taken to follow adiabats that account for condensation of volatiles through a scaling parameter to the dry adiabat. By combining these assumptions, we produce simple, analytic expressions that allow calculations of the atmospheric-pressure-temperature profile, as well as expressions for the profiles of thermal radiative flux and convective flux. We explore the general behaviors of our model. These investigations encompass (1) worlds where atmospheric attenuation of sunlight is weak, which we show tend to have relatively high radiative-convective boundaries; (2) worlds with some attenuation of sunlight throughout the atmosphere, which we show can produce either shallow or deep radiative-convective boundaries, depending on the strength of sunlight attenuation; and (3) strongly irradiated giant planets (including hot Jupiters), where we explore the conditions under which these worlds acquire detached convective regions in their mid-tropospheres. Finally, we validate our model and demonstrate its utility through comparisons to the average observed thermal structure of Venus, Jupiter, and Titan, and by comparing computed flux profiles to more complex models.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

THE EVOLUTION OF SOLAR FLUX FROM 0.1 nm TO 160 {mu}m: QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES FOR PLANETARY STUDIES

Understanding changes in the solar flux over geologic time is vital for understanding the evolution of planetary atmospheres because it affects atmospheric escape and chemistry, as well as climate. We describe a numerical parameterization for wavelength-dependent changes to the non-attenuated solar flux appropriate for most times and places in the solar system. We combine data from the Sun and solar analogs to estimate enhanced UV and X-ray fluxes for the young Sun and use standard solar models to estimate changing visible and infrared fluxes. The parameterization, a series of multipliers relative to the modern top of the atmosphere flux at Earth, is valid from 0.1 nm through the infrared, and from 0.6 Gyr through 6.7 Gyr, and is extended from the solar zero-age main sequence to 8.0 Gyr subject to additional uncertainties. The parameterization is applied to a representative modern day flux, providing quantitative estimates of the wavelength dependence of solar flux for paleodates relevant to the evolution of atmospheres in the solar system (or around other G-type stars). We validate the code by Monte Carlo analysis of uncertainties in stellar age and flux, and with comparisons to the solar proxies {kappa}{sup 1} Cet and EK Dra. The model is applied to the computation of photolysis rates on the Archean Earth.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

MULTIPOLAR PLANETARY NEBULAE: NOT AS GEOMETRICALLY DIVERSIFIED AS THOUGHT

Planetary nebulae (PNe) have diverse morphological shapes, including point-symmetric and multipolar structures. Many PNe also have complicated internal structures such as tori, lobes, knots, and ansae. A complete accounting of all the morphological structures through physical models is difficult. A first step toward such an understanding is to derive the true three-dimensional structure of the nebulae. In this paper, we show that a multipolar nebula with three pairs of lobes can explain many such features, if orientation and sensitivity effects are taken into account. Using only six parameters-the inclination and position angles of each pair-we are able to simulate the observed images of 20 PNe with complex structures. We suggest that multipolar structure is an intrinsic structure of PNe and the statistics of multipolar PNe have been severely underestimated in the past.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

THE DETECTION OF C60 IN THE WELL-CHARACTERIZED PLANETARY NEBULA M1-11

We performed multiwavelength observations of the young planetary nebula (PN) M1-11 and obtained its elemental abundances, dust mass, and the evolutionary status of the central star. The AKARI/IRC, VLT/VISIR, and Spitzer/IRS spectra show features due to carbon-rich dust, such as the 3.3, 8.6, and 11.3 {mu}m features due to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), a smooth continuum attributable to amorphous carbon, and the broad 11.5 and 30 {mu}m features often ascribed to SiC and MgS, respectively. We also report the presence of an unidentified broad feature at 16-22 {mu}m, similar to the feature found in Magellanic Cloud PNe with either C-rich or O-rich gas-phase compositions. We identify for the first time in M1-11 spectral lines at 8.5 (blended with PAH), 17.3, and 18.9 {mu}m that we attribute to the C{sub 60} fullerene. This identification is strengthened by the fact that other Galactic PNe in which fullerenes are detected have similar central stars, similar gas-phase abundances, and a similar dust composition to M1-11. The weak radiation field due to the relatively cool central stars in these PNe may provide favorable conditions for fullerenes to survive in the circumstellar medium. Using the photoionization code CLOUDY, combined with a modified blackbody, we have fitted the {approx}0.1-90 {mu}m spectral energy distribution (SED) and determined the dust mass in the nebula to be {approx}3.5 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup -4} M {sub Sun }. Our chemical abundance analysis and SED model suggest that M1-11 is perhaps a C-rich PN with C/O ratio in the gas phase of +0.19 dex, and that it evolved from a 1-1.5 M {sub Sun} star.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

SERENDIPITOUS DETECTION OF X-RAY EMISSION FROM THE HOT BORN-AGAIN CENTRAL STAR OF THE PLANETARY NEBULA K 1-16

We report the serendipitous detection of point-like X-ray emission from the hot, PG1159-type central star of the planetary nebula (CSPN) K 1-16 by the XMM-Newton and Chandra X-Ray Observatories. The CSPN lies superimposed on a galaxy cluster that includes an X-ray-bright quasar, but we have successfully isolated the CSPN X-ray emission from the strong diffuse background contributed by the quasar and intracluster gas. We have modeled the XMM-Newton and Chandra X-ray data, taking advantage of the contrasting detection efficiencies of the two observatories to better constrain the low-energy spectral response of Chandra's Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer. We find that the CSPN X-ray spectrum is well characterized by the combination of a non-local thermodynamic equilibrium model atmosphere with T{sub *} {approx} 135 kK and a carbon-rich, optically thin thermal plasma with T{sub X} {approx} 1 MK. These results for X-ray emission from the K 1-16 CSPN, combined with those obtained for other PG1159-type objects, lend support to the 'born-again' scenario for Wolf-Rayet and PG1159 CSPNe, wherein a late helium shell flash dredges up carbon-rich intershell material and ejects this material into the circumstellar environment.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

DETECTION OF DIFFUSE X-RAY EMISSION FROM PLANETARY NEBULAE WITH NEBULAR O VI

The presence of O VI ions can be indicative of plasma temperatures of a few Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 5} K that are expected in heat conduction layers between the hot shocked stellar wind gas at several 10{sup 6} K and the cooler (10{sup 4} K) nebular gas of planetary nebulae (PNe). We have used FUSE observations of PNe to search for nebular O VI emission or absorption as a diagnostic of the conduction layer to ensure the presence of hot interior gas. Three PNe showing nebular O VI, namely IC 418, NGC 2392, and NGC 6826, have been selected for Chandra observations and diffuse X-ray emission is indeed detected in each of these PNe. Among the three, NGC 2392 has peculiarly high diffuse X-ray luminosity and plasma temperature compared with those expected from its stellar wind's mechanical luminosity and terminal velocity. The limited effects of heat conduction on the plasma temperature of a hot bubble at the low terminal velocity of the stellar wind of NGC 2392 may partially account for its high plasma temperature, but the high X-ray luminosity needs to be powered by processes other than the observed stellar wind, probably the presence of an unseen binary companion of the central star of the PN (CSPN) of NGC 2392. We have compiled relevant information on the X-ray, stellar, and nebular properties of PNe with a bubble morphology and found that the expectations of bubble models including heat conduction compare favorably with the present X-ray observations of hot bubbles around H-rich CSPNe, but have notable discrepancies for those around H-poor [WR] CSPNe. We note that PNe with more massive central stars can produce hotter plasma and higher X-ray surface brightness inside central hot bubbles.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

A SURVEY FOR PLANETARY NEBULAE IN M31 GLOBULAR CLUSTERS

We report the results of an [O III] {lambda}5007 spectroscopic survey for planetary nebulae (PNe) located within the star clusters of M31. By examining R {approx} 5000 spectra taken with the WIYN+Hydra spectrograph, we identify 3 PN candidates in a sample of 274 likely globular clusters, 2 candidates in objects which may be globular clusters, and 5 candidates in a set of 85 younger systems. The possible PNe are all faint, between {approx}2.5 and {approx}6.8 mag down the PN luminosity function, and, partly as a consequence of our selection criteria, have high excitation, with [O III] {lambda}5007 to H{beta} ratios ranging from 2 to {approx}> 12. We discuss the individual candidates, their likelihood of cluster membership, and the possibility that they were formed via binary interactions within the clusters. Our data are consistent with the suggestion that PN formation within globular clusters correlates with binary encounter frequency, though, due to the small numbers and large uncertainties in the candidate list, this study does not provide sufficient evidence to confirm the hypothesis.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

THE DECELERATION OF NEBULAR SHELLS IN EVOLVED PLANETARY NEBULAE

We have selected a group of 100 evolved planetary nebulae (PNe) and study their kinematics based upon spatially-resolved, long-slit, echelle spectroscopy. The data have been drawn from the San Pedro Martir Kinematic Catalogue of PNe. The aim is to characterize in detail the global kinematics of PNe at advanced stages of evolution with the largest sample of homogenous data used to date for this purpose. The results reveal two groups that share kinematics, morphology, and photo-ionization characteristics of the nebular shell and central star luminosities at the different late stages under study. The typical flow velocities we measure are usually larger than seen in earlier evolutionary stages, with the largest velocities occurring in objects with very weak or absent [N II] {lambda}6584 line emission, by all indications the least evolved objects in our sample. The most evolved objects expand more slowly. This apparent deceleration during the final stage of PNe evolution is predicted by hydrodynamical models, but other explanations are also possible. These results provide a template for comparison with the predictions of theoretical models.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

METAL-RICH PLANETARY NEBULAE IN THE OUTER REACHES OF M31

Spectroscopic data of two relatively [O III]-luminous planetary nebulae (PNe) have been obtained with the 10.4 m Gran Telescopio Canarias. M174 and M2496 are each {approx}1 Degree-Sign from the center of M31 along opposite sides of its minor axis. The ensemble of these 2 distant PNe plus 16 similarly luminous outer-disk PNe published previously by Kwitter et al. forms a homogeneous group in luminosity, metal content, progenitor mass, age, and kinematics. The main factual findings of our work are (1) O/H (and other low-mass {alpha} elements and their ratios to O) is uniformly solar-like in all 18 PNe ((12 + log(O/H)) = 8.62 {+-} 0.14); (2) the general sky distribution and kinematics of the ensemble much more closely resemble the rotation pattern of the classical disk of M31 than its halo or bulge; (3) the O/H gradient is surprisingly flat beyond R{sub g} {approx} 20 kpc. The PNe are too metal-rich to be bona fide members of M31's disk or halo, and (4) the abundance patterns of the sample are distinct from those in the spiral galaxies M33, M81, and NGC 300. Using standard PN age diagnostic methods, we suggest that all of the PNe formed {approx}2 Gyr ago in a starburst of metal-rich interstellar medium that followed an M31-M33 encounter about 3 Gyr ago. We review supporting evidence from stellar studies. Other more prosaic explanations, such as dwarf galaxy assimilation, are unlikely.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

SPECTROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS OF PLANETARY NEBULAE IN THE NORTHERN SPUR OF M31

We present spectroscopy of three planetary nebulae (PNe) in the Northern Spur of the Andromeda galaxy (M31) obtained with the Double Spectrograph on the 5.1 m Hale Telescope at the Palomar Observatory. The samples were selected from the observations of Merrett et al. Our purpose is to investigate the formation of the substructures of M31 using PNe as a tracer of chemical abundances. The [O III] {lambda}4363 line is detected in the spectra of two objects, enabling temperature determinations. Ionic abundances are derived from the observed collisionally excited lines, and elemental abundances of nitrogen, oxygen, neon, sulfur, and argon are estimated. We study the correlations between oxygen and the {alpha}-element abundance ratios using our sample and the M31 disk and bulge PNe from the literature. In one of the three PNe, we observed a relatively higher oxygen abundance compared to the disk sample of M31 at similar galactocentric distances. The results of at least one of the three Northern Spur PNe might be in line with the proposed possible origin of the Northern Spur substructure of M31, i.e., the Northern Spur is connected to the Southern Stream and both substructures comprise the tidal debris of the satellite galaxies of M31.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

CARBON-RICH MOLECULAR CHAINS IN PROTOPLANETARY AND PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES: QUANTUM MECHANISMS AND ELECTRON ATTACHMENT RATES FOR ANION FORMATION

The elementary mechanisms through which molecular polyynes could form stable negative ions after interacting with free electrons in planetary atmospheres (e.g., Titan's) are analyzed using quantum scattering calculations and quantum structure methods. The case of radical species and of nonpolar partners are analyzed via specific examples for both the C{sub n}H and HC{sub n}H series, with n values from 4 to 12. We show that attachment processes to polar radicals are dominating the anionic production and that the mediating role of dipolar scattering states is crucial to their formation. The corresponding attachment rates are presented as calculated upper limits to their likely values and are obtained down to the low temperatures of interest. The effects of the computed rates, when used in simple evolutionary models, are also investigated and presented in detail.

74 ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS↗