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DOE OSTI2017

Alstom’s Limestone Chemical Looping Gasification Process for High Hydrogen Syngas Generation

Alstom Power Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary of the General Electric Company (GE), is developing Limestone-based Chemical Looping (LCL™) Processes, utilizing limestone derived calcium sulfate as an oxygen carrier to transport oxygen from air to the fuel. The LCL™ process is a breakthrough technology with the potential to capture CO 2 and SO 2 from new and existing coal-fired power plants at reduced costs while maintaining high plant power generation efficiency. Chemical looping is a next generation advancement to oxy-combustion which would not require the significant investment in a cryogenic distillation type oxygen production plant. Instead of the energy-consuming oxygen plant, chemical looping uses a benign material to directly remove oxygen from the air and bring that oxygen into contact with the fuel. This "game changing" technology is the lowest cost-of-electricity technical approach that GE Power has identified to date for coal power with carbon capture. The technology has significantly lower capital costs compared to a conventional steam power plant with first generation carbon capture technologies. This new power plant concept is based on a hybrid combustion-gasification process utilizing high temperature chemical and thermal looping technology. In the air reactor, a solid oxygen carrier picks up oxygen from air through an oxidation reaction and leaves nitrogen behind. The hot oxygen-carrying solid carrier is then transported to a fuel reactor, where it releases oxygen. The released oxygen then converts the coal in the fuel reactor into combustion gases. The solid carrier is recycled back to the air reactor for regeneration completing the “chemical loop.” The regeneration step produces heat from which steam is produced for power generation while the process results in a concentrated carbon dioxide stream in which the carbon is captured for use or sequestration (CCUS). Limestone as a precursor for the oxygen carrier is abundant, benign, low cost, and is used in CFB and PC boilers for sulfur control. Challenges associated with this carrier include a complex reaction mechanism with possible side reactions leading to the release of SO 2 . The development of the Limestone Chemical Looping Gasification (LCL-G™) technology was co-funded by the Department of Energy under the DOE/NETL Cooperative Agreement No. DE- FE0023497, in parallel with the collaborative combustion (LCL-C™) program. In this report, the LCL-G™ experimental testing from the electrically-heated, once-through, 100 kW Pilot-Scale Test Facility (PSTF) is analysed and reviewed. The PSTF Oxidizer is a 50-foot tall, 100-mm diameter transport reactor, while the PSTF Reducer reactor is based upon a bubbling-bed design. The experimental data from four (4) test campaigns (denoted “Weeks”) are reviewed and discussed. The LCL-G™ (DE-FE0023497) project objectives for gasification are >90% carbon gasified in the Reducer and a H 2 :CO molar generation ratio of 2:1. These project performance metrics were not met by a single coal test, but they were individually approached in two separate tests.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

DOE OSTI2017

Improvement of Alstom's Limestone-Based Chemical Looping Combustion Process for Higher Purity Flue Gas Production

Alstom Power Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary of the General Electric Company (GE), is developing Limestone-based Chemical Looping (LCL™) Processes, utilizing limestone derived calcium sulfate as an oxygen carrier to transport oxygen from air to the fuel. The LCL™ process is a breakthrough technology with the potential to capture CO 2 and SO 2 from new and existing coal-fired power plants at reduced costs while maintaining high plant power generation efficiency. Chemical looping is a next generation advancement to oxy-combustion which would not require the significant investment in a cryogenic distillation type oxygen production plant. Instead of the energy-consuming oxygen plant, chemical looping uses a benign material to directly remove oxygen from the air and bring that oxygen into contact with the fuel. This "game changing" technology is the lowest cost-of-electricity technical approach that GE Power has identified to date for coal power with carbon capture. The technology has significantly lower capital costs compared to a conventional steam power plant with first generation carbon capture technologies. This new power plant concept is based on a hybrid combustion-gasification process utilizing high temperature chemical and thermal looping technology. In the air reactor, a solid oxygen carrier picks up oxygen from air through an oxidation reaction and leaves nitrogen behind. The hot oxygen-carrying solid carrier is then transported to a fuel reactor, where it releases oxygen. The released oxygen then converts the coal in the fuel reactor into combustion gases. The solid carrier is recycled back to the air reactor for regeneration completing the “chemical loop.” The regeneration step produces heat from which steam is produced for power generation while the process results in a concentrated carbon dioxide stream in which the carbon is captured for use or sequestration (CCUS). Limestone as a precursor for the oxygen carrier is abundant, benign, low cost, and is used in CFB and PC boilers for sulfur control. Challenges associated with this carrier include a complex reaction mechanism with possible side reactions leading to the release of SO 2 . The present project (DOE/NETL Cooperative Agreement No. DE-FE0025073) report focuses on coal-fired Limestone Chemical Looping Combustion (LCL-C™) processes that can produce a higher purity flue gas stream and achieve an improved overall performance that will meet the stated DOE goal of generating power from coal while achieving greater than 90% CO2 removal at less than 35% increase in the Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE). It builds on the concurrent and synergistic limestone-based chemical looping combustion (LCL-C™) and gasification (LCL-G™) projects with the Department of Energy, that were executed in parallel with the present project. In this report, the LCL-C™ experimental testing from the electrically-heated, once-through, 100 kW Pilot-Scale Test Facility (PSTF) is analysed and reviewed. The PSTF Oxidizer is a 50-foot tall, 100-mm diameter transport reactor, while the PSTF Reducer reactor is based upon a bubbling-bed design. The experimental data from designated test periods (denoted “Weeks”) are reviewed and discussed. The application of high sulfur release in the Reducer (with proper sulfur management) exceeded the LCL-CTM performance targets. Furthermore, the ilmenite blend came within 1 percentage point of meeting all of the performance targets.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

DOE OSTI2018

An Assessment of MELCOR 2.1: Containment Thermal-Hydraulic Tests in the Heissdampfreaktor (HDR) Facility

MELCOR is being developed at Sandia National Laboratories for the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. MELCOR is a fully integrated code (encompassing the reactor coolant system and the containment building) that models the progression of postulated accidents in light water reactor power plants. It provides a capability for independently auditing analyses submitted by reactor manufacturers and utilities. In order to assess the adequacy of containment thermal - hydraulic modeling incorporated in the MELCOR code, a key containment test facility was analyzed. This report documents MELCOR code calculations for simulating steam - water blowdown tests performed in the Heissdampfreaktor ( HDR) de-commissioned containment facility located near Frankfurt , Germany . These tests are a series of blowdown experiments in a large scaled test facility ; including some tests with the addition of hydrogen release which are intended to simulate a variety of postulated break s inside large containment buildings. The key objectives of this MELCOR assessment are to study: (1) the expansion and transport of high energy steam - water releases, (2) heat and mass transfer to structural passive heat sinks, and (3) containment gas mixing and stratification. Moreover, MELCOR results are compared to the CONTAIN code for the same tests.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗

DOE OSTI2018

Renewable hydrogen production via thermochemical/electrochemical coupling

A coupled electrochemical/thermochemical cycle was investigated to produce hydrogen from renewable resources. Like a conventional thermochemical cycle, this cycle leverages chemical energy stored in a thermochemical working material that is reduced thermally by solar energy. However, in this concept, the stored chemical energy only needs to be partially capable of splitting steam to produce hydrogen. To push the reaction to completion, a proton-conducting membrane is employed to separate hydrogen as it is produced, thus shifting the thermodynamics toward further hydrogen production. This novel coupled-cycle concept provides several benefits. First, the required oxidation enthalpy of the reversible thermochemical material is reduced, enabling the process to occur at lower temperatures. Second, removing the requirement for spontaneous steam splitting widens the scope of materials compositions, allowing for less expensive/more abundant elements to be used. Lastly, thermodynamics calculations suggest that this concept can potentially reach higher efficiencies than photovoltaic-to-electrolysis hydrogen production methods. This Exploratory Express LDRD involved assessing the practical feasibility of the proposed coupled cycle. A test stand was designed and constructed and proton-conducting membranes were synthesized. An LDRD plus-up of $10k enabled the remediation of a membrane sealing issue and enabled testing with an improved membrane. However, the membrane proved too thick for efficient proton conduction, and there were insufficient funds to continue. While the full proof of concept was not achieved, the individual components of the experiment were validated and new capabilities that can be leveraged by a variety of programs were developed.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2018

Lab-scale Development of a Hybrid Capture System with Advanced Membrane, Solvent system, and Process Integration

The objective of the project is to achieve lab-scale demonstration of a transformational hybrid membrane/solvent system for the capture of CO 2 from flue gas. A novel process integration scheme was proposed to overcome the low partial pressure of CO 2 present in flue gas. This scheme takes advantage of the potential synergies inherent in the membrane and solvent capture systems. The proposed hybrid technology replaces the second-stage membrane with a solvent capture process. The combustion air is used as a sweeping gas in the solvent stripper. This overall configuration has the major advantages of requiring much less air and eliminating the problems associated with oxygen slip in the membrane-based systems. Even more importantly, because of the presence of the air sweep in the stripper, much lower temperatures are required for solvent regeneration, which enables heat integration to the point that no process steam is required. This project was to perform lab-scale demonstration of Liquid Ion Solutions (LIS) transformational hybrid membrane/solvent system for post-combustion CO 2 capture while demonstrating significant progress toward achievement of the overall fossil energy performance goals of 90% CO 2 capture rate with 95% CO 2 purity at a cost of electricity 30% less than baseline capture approaches. This report is written chronologically based on budget periods. Each budget period discusses the work performed and its results. At the end of each budget period the milestone charts are provided to show the progress. This project was not able to meet its stated goals. The performances of the power plant equipped with the hybrid process and Baseline Case B12B were compared. The simulation results showed that the power plant equipped with hybrid CO2 capture process has an improved thermal efficiency of 33.4% compared to the Baseline Case B12B, which is 32.5%. However, the COE for the hybrid process is $146.3/MWh which is higher than the $142.8/MWh for Case B12B. If this process were to be applied as a retrofit, it may make sense to use this configuration as it does not require any change in an existing plant configuration and steam cycle. However, for a new powerplant the capital cost is higher than the Case B12B. On the membrane development side, we successfully showed that interfacially-controlled envelope (ICE) membranes work. The inclusion of surface modified nano-particles results in much higher gas diffusivities. The Gen-1 ICE membrane developed under this project showed exceptional improved permeability for CO 2 . However, we ran into major problems which were associated with the scalability and reproducibility of the poly(phosphozene) polymers. The issues with scale-up are and batch to batch variability is also discussed. At the end of this report we have provided our recommendations on materials development for better membrane materials and alluded to the use of much simpler chemistry while keeping the concept of ICE membrane intact. It is also clear that vacuum and compression equipment is costly. If a process which can eliminate the use of vacuum and compression equipment would significantly decrease the overall cost of capture. Some thoughts regarding such system is also provided in the outlook portion of this report.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗

DOE OSTI2018

Final TCF Report for Earth Battery: Storing Energy with Compressed Air and Heated Brine in Porous Rock

Cost-effective reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are best achieved when all low-carbon energy resources are fully utilized. This includes base-load power: nuclear energy (NE) and fossil energy (FE), integrated with CO 2 capture, use, and storage (CCUS), and variable renewable energy (VRE) (wind and solar); but, current CCUS options don’t justify CO 2 -capture costs and existing energy-storage approaches lack the capacity and storage duration needed to fully utilize all forms of low-carbon energy without curtailment. The Earth Battery is designed to meet these challenges by synergistically integrating conventional- and renewable-energy resources, allowing each to contribute more efficiently to the grid than if operated independently. The Earth Battery stores energy underground as pressure and heat, using compressed air and/or CO 2 , together with heated brine. These fluids are stored in either saline aquifers used for CO 2 or natural gas (NG) storage or in oil and gas reservoirs, making deployment possible over much of the U.S. We can provide enormous energy-storage capacity and duration. The main goal of this study was to assess the techno-economic feasibility of the versions of the Earth Battery that use compressed air energy storage (CAES). Current CAES systems use NG turbines and store air in salt caverns, which limits geographic deployment. Conventional CAES wastes much of the heat of air compression, comprising half of the compression energy. Our technology addresses these deficiencies by using permeable sedimentary rock to store air and the heat of compression as heated brine. When electricity is needed, air and hot brine are produced, with hot brine used to pre-heat air before it is fed into the expanders. Key factors affecting round-trip efficiency are (1) pressure loss in the air-storage reservoir, which depends on permeability (> 100 mD being needed for efficient operations) and (2) temperature loss in the hot-brine storage reservoir, which decreases with time as the storage formation heats up. The original scope of this project was to conduct a techno-economic assessment of diurnal storage with the CAES Earth Battery, including (1) Adiabatic CAES, which requires no fossil fuel and (2) NG/CAES, where one or more of the expansion stages are NG fueled. During its assessment, we found NG/CAES, generates excess heat of compression that can be put into long-term (seasonal) storage and be utilized in a combined-cycle fashion with the addition of steam turbines. This resulted in our developing a new Earth Battery technology, which we call the Thermal Earth Battery. We conducted energy-system analyses for the Thermal Earth Battery for various combinations of heat sources: (1) heat of FE combustion, (2) excess heat of compression from NG/CAES, and (3) solar thermal energy (STE). The other Earth Battery class we developed compresses CO 2 , rather than air; hence, it is called Compressed CO 2 Energy Storage (CCES). Finally, we developed an improved, more efficient, more versatile version of the Allam cycle, which uses pressurized CO 2 , and developed various options for integrating renewable energy and energy storage. Our improved Allam-cycle technology minimizes cooling-water consumption, while enabling reliable, dispatchable renewable energy. Although not anticipated in our original scope of work, our Topic 1 project evolved into a highly productive discovery process wherein we developed a portfolio of Earth Battery configuration options and use cases. Our ultimate objective was to evaluate those options and use cases and determine the most optimal first best use options for our Earth Battery technology. That process resulted in identifying seasonal energy storage as a niche where no other energy storage technology could compete with us. As a result, we have identified the Thermal Earth Battery, which uses conventional steam-turbine components, and our improved Allam-cycle integrated with renewable energy and energy storage as the most promising technologies to commercialize in our Topic 2 proposal. Finally, our scope included finding a commercialization team for a Topic 2 continuation of this project, which we have successfully completed.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2018

United States Nuclear Manufacturing Infrastructure Assessment

This report provides a review and assessment of the existing U.S. infrastructure capabilities to manufacture on a commercial scale, the major components and unique materials required by the various U.S. designs for advanced nuclear reactors and small modular reactors (SMRs). The approach was to compare the needs of SMRs and advanced reactors against the capability of U.S. manufacturers to ascertain gaps that could inhibit U.S. industrial support for deployment of SMRs or advanced reactors. This report focused on the reactor plant designs being developed by NuScale Power (the NuScale Power Module), TerraPower (both the Traveling Wave Reactor and the Molten Chloride Fast Reactor to a limited extent), and X-energy (the Xe-100). To gather the information, MPR visited each of these companies and selected candidate suppliers to tour their facilities and conduct in-person interviews. Information was also obtained by telephone interviews, internet research, and literature review of technical reports. The overarching conclusion from this study is that the U.S. has existing capability or can readily develop capability to support and sustain most, but not all, aspects of commercial deployment of advanced reactors and SMRs. The greatest concerns for capability gaps in the U.S. infrastructure for supply of components for SMRs and advanced reactors are associated with reactor pressure vessels, steam generators, and fuel fabrication. Foreign vendors can supply reactor pressure vessels and steam generators. Issues with fuel fabrication are associated with uranium enrichment and development of fabrication methods for the innovative fuel concepts planned for advanced reactors. The technical capabilities of U.S. manufacturers appear satisfactory with the possible exceptions noted above. However, the capacity of the existing U.S. manufacturing infrastructure may be insufficient for a high rate of construction. Manufacturers contacted as part of this study indicated a willingness to expand capacity if sufficient orders are in place. The review of U.S. infrastructure included a detailed review of capabilities in many different processes including forging, tube drawing, machining, fabrication, and testing. In addition, MPR researched the advanced manufacturing processes for additive manufacturing (i.e., 3D printing) and powder metallurgy - hot isostatic pressing. Reactor plant designers and candidate suppliers are planning to rely on traditional processes for the initial plants. If advanced manufacturing processes are developed and accepted by the nuclear industry, these processes may be used in the future. In the immediate term, ongoing research (much of which is funded by DOE) is necessary to develop and refine advanced manufacturing methods. This report includes several recommendations for DOE that will advance deployment of SMRs and advanced reactors from a manufacturing perspective and other areas identified during the course of this project.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2019

Development of and initial assessment of microstructurally engineered UN

Fuels with high uranium densities have been considered in the Nuclear Technology Research and Development program’s Advanced Fuels Campaign as potential replacements for uranium(IV) oxide in commercial light water reactors. One such candidate fuel is uranium mononitride, UN, which has been observed to readily oxidize in steam and simulated pressurized water reactor conditions. Thus, it is important to examine methods for waterproofing UN, especially for potential cladding breach scenarios. This can be achieved by controlling the microstructure so as to prevent contact between the UN fuel and coolant. Research so far this FY has focused on screening potential candidate additive materials to control UN microstructure using steam oxidation TGA. From these candidates, yttrium was selected based on corrosion resistance, which led to attempts to develop a method for liquid phase sintering of yttrium with UN. Yttrium in the form of yttrium dihydride (YH 2 ) was mixed with UN, pressed, and heated to temperatures above the melting point of Y metal to dehydride the material and then melt it to enable liquid phase sintering. Results showed no indication of densification, but did show chemical interaction between Y and UN, resulting in the formation of yttrium nitride (YN) and uranium metal. These observations were used to develop a better understanding of microstructure control for UN waterproofing to be addressed in an L2 milestone that is an FY19 deliverable (M2FT-19LA020201021).

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2019

Primary System Test Facility Review

Idaho National Laboratory (INL) is designing a Dynamic Energy Transport and Integration Laboratory (DETAIL) to demonstrate the operation of an integrated energy system as part of supporting research and development needs for the DOE Office of Nuclear Energy Integrated Energy Systems (IES) Program. DETAIL will demonstrate real-time integration with the electrical grid, renewable energy inputs, thermal and electrical energy storage, and energy delivery to an end user. A Thermal Energy Distribution System (TEDS) is being constructed within the DETAIL facility to demonstrate the operation of integrated energy system heat transfer components, thermal energy storage, distribution systems, and instrumentation and control (I&C), which will allow the facility to emulate the distribution of thermal energy to the generation of electrical power, and/or producing non-electrical commodities (e.g., hydrogen). As is the case for other subsystems within DETAIL, TEDS is designed to operate either independently or as a part of an integrated system to demonstrate the operation of integrated components, develop and validate thermal energy transport models and control systems, and study thermal energy inertia and energy storage. In an effort to completely understand how TEDS will integrate with operational plants, data from tests previously run at existing integral system test facilities (IST) will be used to drive the TEDS heater. Alternatively, a real-time data connection would allow steam conditions at the IST to drive the TEDS heater at the same time as having TEDS conditions provide feedback to the IST in terms of steam demand and/or pressure. This integrated testing approach will assess the ability of TEDS to operate during all plant conditions. Three existing integral system test facilities have been reviewed to determine their suitability for demonstrating TEDS capabilities when integrated within the DETAIL. This report summarizes the capabilities of each IST facility and any challenges that must be overcome to meet the operational needs of TEDS and DETAIL.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2019

Report on waterproofing of UN studies

Fuels with high uranium densities have been considered in the Nuclear Technology Research and Development program’s Advanced Fuels Campaign as potential replacements for uranium(IV) oxide in commercial light water reactors. One such candidate fuel is uranium mononitride, UN, which has been observed to readily oxidize in steam and simulated pressurized water reactor conditions. Thus, it is important to examine methods for waterproofing UN, especially for potential cladding breach scenarios. This can be achieved by controlling the microstructure so as to prevent contact between the UN fuel and coolant. Research highlighted in this L2 milestone has focused on screening potential candidate additive materials to control UN microstructure using steam oxidation TGA. From these candidates, silicon (Si), chromium (Cr), and silicon carbide (SiC) were selected based on corrosion resistance, which led to attempts to develop a method for compositing these materials with UN. Powders of these materials were mixed with UN, pressed, and sintered. UN-metal composite sintering was attempted through liquid-phase sintering at temperatures above the melting point of the respective metals, while the UN-SiC composite sintering was attempted using two-step sintering at 2100 and 2050 °C. Results of silicon and silicon carbide appeared to show chemical interaction with UN to form uranium silicides, while chromium was found to significantly volatilize near the melting point of chromium. No indication of densification was observed. These observations, along with those of the preceding, related L3 milestone (NTRD-M3FT-19LA020201024) were used to develop a better understanding of microstructure control to advance efforts for UN waterproofing.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2019

Extraction of Mercury Utilizing 3D Printed Media-Mercury Extraction Coalescer (MEC)

This project was undertaken to address the concern of mercury species present in chemical reprocessing facilities and environmental remediation sites. Typical elemental mercury removal is performed by steam stripping. As efficient as this process is, the vaporized elemental mercury is often condensed along with acidic condensate. The acidic conditions re-dissolve the elemental mercury, transferring it back into the aqueous stream, and undoing the energy-intensive steam stripping process. This project looked to design and produce a 3D printed component to act as a mercury vapor/liquid coalescer utilizing structural and chemical features to segregate elemental mercury from an aqueous solution or process offgas and improving elemental mercury retention and removal from the recirculated condensate stream. The aim of this project is to take inspiration from nature, for example the lotus leaf, and the advantage of advanced manufacturing techniques, in this case 3D printing, to produce a functional solution to a serious environmental issue, the accumulation of elemental mercury in aqueous environments.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2019

Extraction of Mercury Utilizing 3D Printed Media – Mercury Extraction Coalescer (MEC) (Revision 1)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2019

AOI2 - Initial Engineering, Testing, and Design of a Commercial-Scale Postcombustion CO 2 Capture System on an Existing Coal-Fired Generating Unit (Project Carbon)

The continued long-term use of North Dakota lignite is likely dependent on creating a business case for carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) that also addresses society’s desire to reduce carbon emissions. CCUS coupled with enhanced oil recovery appears to be the most feasible option for utilities to sustain and grow the lignite industry. Establishing a market where lignite-powered utilities provide carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) to oil producers depends upon having a cost-effective method to capture CO 2 . The application of CO 2 capture technology to lignite-fired flue gas has challenges in addition to the cost of capture, including the effects of the buildup of heat-stable salts, aerosol formation, degradation of solvents or solid sorbents, or subsequent solvent loss. Lignite, especially North Dakota lignite, presents its own set of challenges that include the combination of high sodium, sulfur, and ash contents; NO x reduction; and footprint limitations. Project Carbon was designed to address these technical barriers and provide pre-FEED (preliminary front-end engineering and design) information necessary for additional commercial demonstrations to move forward. A long-term pilot-scale evaluation of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries’ (MHI’s) KS-1™ solvent at Minnkota Power Cooperative’s lignite-fired Milton R. Young Station Unit 2 (MRY2) was a major objective of the project. The purpose of the test was to demonstrate the technology’s compatibility with MRY2’s flue gas over an extended period of time. During the long-term test, aerosol sampling and measurement were performed, and a pilot-scale baghouse was tested to determine the effect of bag material and operation on aerosol concentrations in the flue gas. Project engineering and design work were performed to support the other major project objective: a pre-FEED study of CO 2 capture at MRY2. Finally, a techno-economic assessment (TEA) of the application of CO 2 capture to MRY2 was performed. This project was performed over a period of 28 months, with a total budget of $12,700,000. The U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) National Energy Technology Laboratory, through the Energy & Environmental Research Center’s (EERC’s) Cooperative Agreement, the North Dakota Industrial Commission, and industry partners ALLETE and Minnkota Power Cooperative, funded the project. The pilot-scale test system at MRY2 performed very well for the continuous test period of 83 days. The CO 2 capture plant achieved stable operation while utilizing MHI’s KS-1™ solvent and the MHI amine emission reduction unit. No major concerns were encountered when capturing CO 2 from lignite-fired flue gas. Challenges were encountered because the cooling water temperature was warmer than needed for the capture system to operate efficiently. This affected the ability of the solvent to capture CO 2 and promoted solvent loss through solvent entrainment caused by high CO 2 gas temperature within a cyclone separator. The KS-1™ solvent and the lignite-derived flue gas were analyzed during the long-term test. Analysis of the solvent indicates that, although some metals and heat-stable salts increased over the course of the long-term test, they were at levels that can be treated with filtration and reclaiming and do not pose a concern for effective solvent operation. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometry was successfully used to determine the composition of the lignite-derived flue gas as well as concentrations of select components of the flue gas at various locations within the EERC’s CO 2 capture system. The formation of aerosols during the capture process is of interest, as are approaches for their reduction, especially in a baghouse. Testing of aerosol removal was performed using the EERC’s portable baghouse. It was found that both Ryton and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membrane bags were effective at reducing the level of aerosols during steady-state operation. During backpulse events, however, the amount of aerosols passing through the bags was an order of magnitude lower for the Ryton bags than the PTFE membrane bags. The testing showed that proper design of the baghouse air-to-cloth ratio as well as minimization of backpulsing can dramatically reduce the amount of aerosols that pass through the bags and remain in the flue gas stream exiting a baghouse system. A technology maturation plan (TMP) was performed to enable successful development of the Kansai Mitsubishi Carbon Dioxide Recovery® (KM CDR®) Process for application to a combustion flue gas for which the process has not yet been demonstrated. In the TMP, new challenges to the MHI CO 2 capture technology during its application to MRY2 were identified. These challenges included capture from lignite-fired (as opposed to subbituminous coal-fired) flue gas, a larger scope than previous applications of the technology, and implementation in a colder climate that could affect process and equipment operability. Because MRY2 is located where stack icing in the winter could be problematic, a rime icing study was performed. Rime icing modeling indicated that, under both 100% and 50% operating loads, there is a potential for many icing events during any given part of the year in which below-freezing weather conditions exist. The models showed that a critical amount of rime ice could be formed at the stack top during two or more events per year. CO 2 capture plant stack height and location will need to be determined in order to minimize the formation of rime ice. It was found that the integration of the MHI CO 2 capture process into the normal operation of the MRY2 steam turbine is a viable alternative to a cogeneration facility to provide steam and power for the carbon capture facility. The research performed under this project showed that CO 2 capture at a lignite-fired power plant can successfully be performed. No known fatal flaws that would prevent the continued development of the MRY2 CO 2 capture facility were identified during the pre-FEED study. A TEA performed following DOE methodology shows that applying capture technology to MRY2 may not only meet but exceed the DOE-recognized state-of-the-art baseline.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗

DOE OSTI2019

Initial Performance Evaluation and Ranking of Thermal Energy Storage Options for Light Water Reactor Integration to Support Modeling and Simulation

This report provides an in-depth analysis of current thermal storage technologies in the marketplace as of 2019 and develops a phenomenological identification ranking table (PIRT) and Figure of Merit (FOM) study for near-term thermal energy storage technologies with light water reactor technology. Particular focus was given the NuScale reactor as part of the Joint Use Modular Plant (JUMP) program between INL, NuScale, and the Utah Associated Municipal Project (UAMPs). Ancillary service industries and technologies are explored in detail to ascertain thermodynamic requirements for integration with thermal energy storage technologies. These industries include steel manufacturing, hydrogen production, desalination, pulp and paper manufacturing. It was determined that a large percentage of these industries can make use of existing nuclear output temperatures and pressures. Storage technologies that can maintain these values are advantageous for coupling purposes. The report then analyzes ten thermal energy storage technologies, with thirteen specific systems discussed in detail regarding their potential to integrate with LWR technology. A ranking tool identified important characteristics of thermal storage and ranked each of the technologies. Concrete, molten salt, and thermal oil sensible heat storages, and steam accumulators evaluated highly. After including cost estimations and qualitatively comparing these technologies, it is recommended that either molten salt or thermal oil is used for implementation with the JUMP module. The TES project cost will likely cost between $14,000,000 and $50,000,000. The potential flexibility of a two-tank sensible heat storage system should be able to demonstrate various new uses for nuclear heat. From power peaking via steam or liquid air heat topping to process heat applications, a two-tank system should be able to best provide a constant power transfer capability to the auxiliary energy consumer. Through commencement of this work, a more refined thermal storage selection process for Nuscale and existing nuclear power plants can be conducted. The ranking system developed here can be used to re-evaluate the energy storage options periodically depending on the projected installation dates. Current results suggest two-tank thermal energy storage is the most relevant technology in the near-term.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

DOE OSTI2019

Oxidation of Matrix Material in Helium with Varied Moisture Content

Exploration of the oxidation behavior of matrix material from tristructural-isotropic (TRISO) coated particle fuel elements in moisture environments provides critical data needed to predict the material’s response during off-normal accident scenarios. Near-representative, matrix-only samples were fabricated to facilitate oxidation testing in varied moisture concentrations. Oxidation testing was completed over a range of temperatures and oxidizing environments to obtain the relevant oxidation kinetics parameters and empirical oxidation rates necessary to better predict and understand matrix oxidation behavior at relevant conditions. The acquired oxidations rates were fit to established models for steam oxidation of nuclear graphite, and data were acquired following an established process. The data showed good agreement over conditions typical of the kinetic regime, and they showed a departure from the kinetic model fit at elevated temperatures and steam partial pressures in helium carrier gas. The departure was confirmed to be due to the experimental conditions being beyond the kinetic regime based on destructive analysis.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2019

Demonstration of the Coating Analysis Capabilities in BISON

In order to improve the accident tolerance of light water reactor (LWR) fuel, coated cladding materials have been proposed which exhibit much slower oxidation kinetics in high-temperature steam than Zr-alloys. This behavior should decrease the energy release due to oxidation and allow the cladding to remain integral longer in the presence of high-temperature steam, making accident mitigation more likely. In order to determine how these coating materials will adjust the behavior of the Zr-alloy cladding during normal reactor operation, simulations have been performed using the Bison fuel performance code. This analysis focused on modeling and comparing the integral thermo-mechanical performance of coated and uncoated zircaloy cladding with uranium dioxide fuel under normal operating conditions. This analysis demonstrates the ability to model a discrete meshed coating bonded to the cladding exterior and provides a comparison with an uncoated fuel rod. A generic range of coating material properties are implemented given the differences and unknowns regarding the proprietary coating properties used by the vendors. A main-effects analysis was performed to identify trends and sensitivities in how coating material properties affect key fuel performance metrics. Lastly, because residual stresses are expected to form in the coating, arising from the high temperature coating application process and application techniques, an additional analysis was performed to identify the impact of these stresses on the cladding behavior. Future analysis efforts will target more comprehensive documentation of this main effects analysis by sampling the results at the beginning and middle-of-life in order to capture important behavior before and during the onset of gap closure.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2019

10 MWe Coal Direct Chemical Looping (CDLC) Large Pilot Plant Test – Phase I Feasibility

A feasibility study was performed to install a 10 MWe coal direct chemical looping steam generation system at the City of Dover Municipal Power Plant in Dover, Ohio. The chemical looping plant utilized Ohio State University's iron-oxide-based metal oxide, and a moving bed reducer coupled with a transport reactor combustor. The Babcock & Wilcox Company developed the component designs and integrated the chemical looping process with the steam cycle. A four-module design was developed which would serve as a prototype arrangement for much larger systems. An environmental study was completed to support the installation of the large pilot plant at the site.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

DOE OSTI2020

An Overview of the State-of-the-Art Reactor Consequence Uncertainty Assessment Accident Progression Insights

The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) with Sandia National Laboratories (Sandia) have completed three uncertainty analyses (UAs) as part of the State-of-the-Art Reactor Consequence Analyses (SOARCA) program. The SOARCA UAs included an integrated evaluation of uncertainty in accident progression, radiological release, and offsite health consequence projections. The UA for Peach Bottom, a boiling-water reactor (BWR) with a Mark I containment located in the State of Pennsylvania, analyzed the unmitigated long-term station blackout SOARCA scenario. The UA for Sequoyah, a 4-loop Westinghouse pressurized-water reactor (PWR) located in the State of Tennessee, analyzed the unmitigated short-term station blackout SOARCA scenario, with a focus on issues unique to the ice condenser containment and the potential for early containment failure due to hydrogen deflagration. The UA for Surry, a 3-loop Westinghouse PWR with a sub-atmospheric large dry containment located in the State of Virginia, analyzed the unmitigated short-term station blackout SOARCA scenario including the potential for thermally-induced steam-generator tube rupture. These three UAs are currently documented in three NUREG/CR reports. This report provides input to planned NRC documentation on the insights and findings from the SOARCA UA program. The purpose of the summary report is to provide a useful reference for regulatory applications that require the evaluation of offsite consequence risk from beyond design basis event severe accidents. This report focuses on the accident progression and source term insights developed from the MELCOR analyses. MELCOR is the NRC's best-estimate, severe accident computer code used in the SOARCA UAs. In anticipation of the SOARCA UA insights work, NRC and Sandia benchmarked the response of the Peach Bottom model to selected reference calculations from the Peach Bottom SOARCA UA. Peach Bottom was the first SOARCA UA performed and was completed in 2015 using the MELCOR 1.8.6 code. The PWR SOARCA UAs evolved the original methodology and utilized the updated MELCOR 2.2 computer code. The Peach Bottom model has been systematically updated for other NRC research efforts and has been updated to MELCOR 2.2. computer code. The findings from the new reference calculations using the updated model with the MELCOR 2.2 code are also integrated into the report. A second objective is an assessment of the applicability of the results to the other nuclear reactors in the U.S. As the key findings are reviewed, judgments are presented on the applicability of the results to other U.S. nuclear power plants. An important objective of the SOARCA program relied on high- fidelity plant-specific modeling. However, the nature of the insights and conclusions allowed judgements to be made on the applicability of the various insights to the same general classification of plant (i.e., BWR or PWR) or the entire fleet of plants. Finally, the results from the SOARCA UA accident progression calculations contain a wealth of information not previously documented in the NUREG/CRs. This report includes new but related information that can be used to benchmark past or support future regulatory decisions related to severe accidents. The new work includes a benchmark of the NUREG-1465 licensing source term definitions, the variability of key accident progression events and timing to radionuclide release, and an improved understanding of the timing and source terms from consequential steam generator tube ruptures. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Sandia authors gratefully acknowledge the significant technical and programmatic contributions from the NRC SOARCA team which are reflected throughout the report. Dr. Tina Ghosh has been involved throughout the SOARCA UAs, providing the primary managerial and technical oversight. The long lists of NRC and Sandia contributors from the SOARCA UAs are cited in the three NUREG/CRs and are also gratefully acknowledged by the small team of authors compiling the results of their efforts. Significant technical contributions, advice, and reviews were provided by Dr. Hossein Esmaili, Dr. Alfred Hathaway, and Dr. Edward Fuller (retired) of the NRC. Dr. Randal Gauntt (retired), Mr. Patrick Mattie, Mr. Joseph Jones (retired), and Dr. Doug Osborn from Sandia are recognized as the SOARCA UA managers guiding the past efforts. There is a comparable list of project managers at the NRC including Ms. Patricia Santiago, Dr. Salman Haq, and Mr. Jon Barr. Sadly, we have lost Mr. Charlie Tinkler and Mr. Robert Prato, who were important contributors to the original SOARCA project. Finally, Mr. Kyle Ross and Mr. Mark Leonard have also retired but were significant technical contributors. Mr. Kyle Ross was the technical lead on all three SOARCA UAs and the original pressurized water reactor SOARCA study. Mr. Leonard was the technical lead on the original boiling water reactor SOARCA study and a key contributor to the first Peach Bottom SOARCA UA. iv

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗