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DOE OSTI2022

Incorporating energy justice into utility-scale photovoltaic deployment: A policy framework

Utility-scale photovoltaic (PV) installations made up 77 GW (6%) of installed capacity in the United States, as of the end of 2021. This will grow to more than 500 GW by 2050 under a mid-case projection or more than 800 GW if solar costs decline more rapidly. While utility-scale PV is projected to grow rapidly, to date, unlike energy efficiency or distributed PV, utility-scale PV has not been used to provide substantial financial benefits to underserved communities, either through ownership, financing of assets, or direct electricity bill reduction. We assess two mechanisms through which utility-scale PV could benefit underserved communities. We find that while a framework for direct electricity bill reduction can be meaningful to customers, this mechanism falls short of providing restorative justice via wealth creation for minority-owned businesses. In contrast, we find that a framework for procurement of utility-scale PV by public and private entities from PV projects that are financed, owned, and/or developed by minority-owned businesses can provide this restorative justice benefit, and thereby facilitate an equitable energy transition. We conclude with concrete recommendations for new policies and programs to ensure that the benefits of utility-scale PV systems are distributed to underserved communities.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2024

Shared mooring system designs and cost estimates for wave energy arrays

For floating renewable energy devices to become more cost-efficient and commercially scalable, their mooring system designs must be low-cost and suited for large-scale installations. Large arrays of floating devices, such as wave energy converters (WECs), will likely be designed with an individual mooring system for each device in the array. However, new mooring technology advancements provide options to use shared mooring lines to connect adjacent devices to one another, reducing the total number of anchors in the array, thereby reducing material use and cost. Here, this paper explores the design, modeling, and cost analysis of shared mooring systems for various sizes of arrays consisting of heaving oscillating water column (OWC) WECs. Shared mooring systems for WEC arrays sized in 2 x N and N x N grid layouts are designed to meet the relevant design standards, checking their performance with a nonlinear time-domain dynamic simulation, and the costs of each are calculated and compared. Several assumptions are taken in the design process to produce efficient results, providing a preliminary optimization for guidance on design decisions rather than a full, detailed design analysis. Mooring system costs per WEC were found to decrease as the number of WECs in the array increase, up to certain array sizes. The 2 x 3 array had the lowest mooring system cost per WEC out of all arrays considered, with a 60% cost reduction relative to using individual mooring systems. The 3 x 3 and 4 x 4 arrays achieved a 50% cost per WEC reduction. In addition to these significant cost reductions, the shared mooring system designs can provide advantages through smaller mooring system footprints, lower installation times, and less seabed disturbance.

16 TIDAL AND WAVE POWER↗

DOE OSTI2025

Getting brighter: Impacts of improved day-ahead solar forecasts in high-solar, high-storage electricity systems

This paper analyzes the impacts of improved day-ahead solar forecasts on costs and dispatch in the solar-rich Southeast U.S. It uses an optimized high-solar, high-storage resource portfolio in which solar generation capacity accounts for 45 % of total installed capacity (34 %–36 % of generation) and energy storage capacity (43 GW) is equivalent to 33 % of peak demand. In a base scenario, improved day-ahead solar forecasts reduce production costs by $\$87$ million per year ($\$0.13$ per MWh load, $2023$$). This level of savings is within the range or lower than earlier studies of solar forecast improvements at lower levels of solar generation (<25 % of total generation). In this study, solar expansion was accompanied by two important sources of flexibility for managing solar forecast error: energy storage and day-ahead solar curtailment. Furthermore, the analysis finds that regional coordination complements day-ahead solar forecast improvements while natural gas commitment flexibility is a substitute for forecast improvements, as the improved solar forecast leads to sub-optimal commitment of thermal units. Day-ahead solar forecast improvements reduce reserves required to manage forecast error by 30 %. Fewer reserves to manage large, infrequent solar forecast errors could be an important benefit of improved solar forecasts.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Techno-economic analysis and environmental benefits of solar industrial process heating based on parabolic trough collectors

In this work, detailed techno-economic and environmental analyses are conducted for employing a 5 MWt parabolic trough-based solar industrial process heat (SIPH) plant in Salt Lake City, Utah. According to the results, an optimum solar multiple of 1.5 was determined, allowing the plant to generate annual thermal energy of 15389.24 MWth with a capacity factor of 35.1% and levelized cost of heat (LCOH) of $\$ 26.3$/MWth. Considering a 30% investment tax credit and a 30% reduction in the total installed cost could reduce the LCOH to $\$ 19.30$/MWth and $\$ 18.52$/MWth, respectively. Employing parabolic trough collectors could avoid emissions of 3,582,422.47 kg, 147.99 kg, 3,341.66 kg, and 14.32 kg for CO 2 , PM, NOx, and SO 2 , respectively per year compared to a natural gas-based plant. Further, it also caused an annual external cost savings of between $\$ 99,900$ and $\$ 357,004$. Including the external costs in the LCOH analysis shows that the SIPH plant is economically competitive with a natural gas-based plant, further demonstrating its value. A further comparison demonstrated the economic superiority of a parabolic trough-driven IPH plant over a photovoltaic-driven electric boiler plant. In summary, with reducing installed costs and providing incentives, parabolic trough-driven IPH plants will be an economically and environmentally viable option.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2025

PV backsheets survey protocol: A framework for geo-spatial field surveys for bulk material characterization and reliability analysis applied across 41 PV systems

As widespread adoption of photovoltaic (PV) technologies continues, understanding the lifetime of modules is paramount to the viability of the industry as an environmentally conscious alternative to traditional energy generation. Although power degradation can affect the total energy production of a module over its lifetime, module safety failures necessitate the removal of a module leading to a loss of not only the particular asset, but the earning potential of the device. Therefore, it is critical to ensure that the components that provide essential safety functions for PV module operate for their entire rated lifetime. PV backsheets provide necessary electrical insulation to the completed device and failure of this component is cause for a immediate removal of the module. Degradation of the PV module backsheet has led to module safety failures in large-scale installations, costing millions of dollars in damages and lost potential revenue. The spatio-temporal degradation of fielded PV modules is important to study in order to identify which modules within installations are experiencing the greatest exposure conditions and in turn have the highest chance of failure. This paper describes a comprehensive field survey protocol developed for monitoring PV module backsheet performance using solely non-destructive methods in commercial PV fields. The protocol establishes a field naming convention, sampling method, data handling requirements, and measurement procedures. By ensuring consistent data collection practices, the field survey protocol enables research groups to obtain data of uniform quality on backsheet performance over multiple years and locations. In this study, the developed protocol was implemented at forty-one PV sites. Eight different types of airside layer backsheet materials including poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), acrylic PVDF, poly(tetrafluoroethylene-co-hexafluoropropylene-co-vinylidene fluoride) (THV), poly(vinyl fluoride) (PVF), poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), fluoroethylene vinyl ether (FEVE), polyethylene naphthalate (PEN), and glass were identified using attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy. The field survey results show that the spatial distribution of degradation indicators are non-uniform within a particular module, individual site, and across site locations. The degradation of PV modules increased in severity for modules mounted at the edge of rows (across a field) and near the junction box (within a module). This study demonstrates the sensitivity of material performance to exposure length across different materials and climates.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2025

Rapid characterization and failure analysis of 6276 rooftop-harvested photovoltaic connectors

Photovoltaic (PV) connectors, which link modules in series and connect PV strings in parallel, have increasingly been recognized as a primary contributor to PV system failures and a source of numerous fire incidents. However, publicly available data on the rates and types of connector failures are scarce, primarily due to the proprietary nature of the information and the need for comprehensive analysis. This study represents the first large-scale investigation of harvested PV connectors, drawing from a dataset of 6276 connectors from residential rooftop solar systems across the United States. The outcome of this work is twofold: 1) we have established a rapid characterization method for large populations of harvested connectors, incorporating visual inspection, resistance measurements, and X-ray imaging; and 2) the analysis made possible by our rapid-processing method has revealed, for a population of connector models provided by a single rooftop installer, failure statistics and insights for various connector makes and models, installation practices, operating currents, and internal component displacements. This research identifies common failure modes that could be considered in future connector designs standards, and operations and maintenance practices, to ultimately improve the reliability of this vital component of PV infrastructure.

MC4↗

DOE OSTI2026

Wind Conditions for Solar Energy Facility Design Based on Field Measurements at Nevada Solar One

This study characterises near-surface wind conditions at the Nevada Solar One (NSO) concentrated solar power plant using two years of measurements from a 15-m mast located 30 m west of the solar arrays. The surrounding terrain is fairly flat within 3 km, but nearby solar photovoltaic (PV) and concentrated solar power (CSP) installations introduce strong directional wind inhomogeneity, which motivates a sector-based analysis that distinguishes undisturbed inflow from waked flow. The analysis uses data from three sonic anemometers to assess whether turbulence in the surface layer can be represented as Gaussian and whether standard surface-layer scaling remains valid below 10 m height. The roughness length and displacement height are estimated for twelve directional sectors under near-neutral wind conditions, and all three velocity components show departures from Gaussian behaviour. Spectral analysis indicates that the turbulence contains low-frequency fluctuations with amplitudes higher than those predicted by standard models such as the Kaimal model or the Simiu and Scanlan model. The study introduces a new turbulence spectral model based on the eddy-surface-layer framework to better represent near-surface wind turbulence. The analysis further quantifies the influence of the surrounding power plants on mean wind profiles, one-point spectra, and vertical coherence for all velocity components. The solar collector arrays located 30 m east of the mast significantly modify the turbulence structure, whereas PV installations situated a few hundred metres away have only a limited influence on the turbulence measured at the mast. These findings highlight the limitations of conventional turbulence models for near-surface wind over solar infrastructure and provide improved parameterisations to support the structural design. The implications for the structural response of parabolic troughs and PV modules to such turbulence remain uncertain and require further investigation.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2024

Close roof-mounted system temperature estimation for compliance to IEC TS 63126

When photovoltaic (PV) modules are installed on rooftops, the module temperature depends primarily on the geographic location and the mounting configuration. If the mounting structure does not provide sufficient airflow in a hot environment, the 98th percentile temperature will exceed 70°C, which according to IEC TS 63126 ED. 1, requires higher levels of thermal stability testing. However, there is no clear way to determine the temperature level needed for a particular location and system design. Here, in this work, we identify a relationship between the module standoff to the rooftop and the module temperature and propose methods to describe a minimum standoff for typical PV modules in a simple mounting configuration installed in a given location. For more complex system designs, we show how to determine an equivalent “effective standoff” that can be applied to generic calculations. Lastly, we show measurements and calculations from several systems to demonstrate how this method could work.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2024

Capacity contributions of Southern Oregon offshore wind to the Pacific Northwest and California

Variable renewable energy generation poses unique capacity challenges, which increasingly depend on weather events at varying timescales. Facilitated by transmission planning, geographic and technological diversity of the generation fleet may provide a mitigation to capacity shortfalls. In this work, offshore wind (OSW) energy is sited in the areas off the West Coast between Coos Bay, Oregon, and Crescent City, California. Three generation and transmission scenarios are modeled within the Western Interconnection: (i) 3.4 gigawatts (GW) of installed OSW capacity connected to Southern Oregon through a High Voltage Alternating Current (HVAC) Radial Topology in 2030; (ii) 12.9 GW of installed OSW capacity connected to Washington, Oregon, and California through a High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Radial Topology post-2030, and (iii) the same 12.9 GW connected to the same locations through a Multi-terminal DC (MTDC) Backbone Topology post-2030. Zonal dispatch simulations assuming coincident wind, solar, and hydropower production and loads over 18 meteorological years, accounting for temperature-dependent equipment derating and forced outages, serve as inputs to the Associated System Capacity Contribution (ASCC) methodology. The capacity credit is 33%, 25% and 34% for the 2030 HVAC Radial Topology, 2030+ HVDC Radial Topology, and 2030+ MTDC Backbone Topology, respectively. Transmission design is shown to mitigate the typical erosion of marginal capacity contribution as more OSW is developed, underscoring the opportunity for grid modernization while decarbonizing the generation mix.

17 WIND ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Single-Atom Metal Oxide Sites as Traps for Charge Separation in the Zirconium-Based Metal–Organic Framework NDC–NU-1000

Solvothermal deposition in metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) can be utilized to mount single-metal-atom catalytic species at chemically reactive sites on hexa-Zr(IV)-oxy(oxo,hydroxo,aqua) nodes in nanoscale crystallites of the MOF NDC-NU-1000 in a self-limiting fashion. Upon photoexcitation of the 1,3,6,8-tetrakis( p -benzoato)pyrene chromophores of the parent framework, charge transfer may occur between the chromophores and the installed heterometal sites. Extended X-ray absorption fine structure studies revealed the single-atom nature of the installed species. A combination of steady-state and ultrafast optical spectroscopy was utilized to uncover evidence of a charge-separated (CS) state arising in the metalated samples. The relevant dynamics were characterized with transient photoluminescence and femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy. Here, we find that a titanium-oxy single atom site gives rise to the longest-lived CS species compared to cobalt and nickel in a similar arrangement. This study provides guidance in designing MOF-based catalytic systems for photocatalysis and solar-fuel production.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2020

Flue Gas Desulfurization Wastewater Composition and Implications for Regulatory and Treatment Train Design

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is currently revising its regulations on trace element discharges from flue gas desulfurization (FGD) wastewater.<br>In this work, we expand a predictive model of trace element behavior at coal-fired power plants (CFPPs) to estimate the trace element concentration of FGD wastewater at the plant level. We demonstrate that variation in trace element concentrations in FGD wastewater can span several orders of magnitude and is a function of both coal rank and installed air pollution control devices. This conclusion suggests that the benefits and costs of FGD wastewater treatment for the median plant will poorly describe the actual benefits and costs over the full range of existing CFPPs.

Mauter, Meagan↗

DOE OSTI2023

Synthetic Access to a Framework-Stabilized and Fully Sulfided Analogue of an Anderson Polyoxometalate that is Catalytically Competent for Reduction Reactions

Polyoxometalates (POMs) featuring 7, 12, 18, or more redox-accessible transition metal ions are ubiquitous as selective catalysts, especially for oxidation reactions. The corresponding synthetic and catalytic chemistry of stable, discrete, capping-ligand-free polythiometalates (PTMs), which could be especially attractive for reduction reactions, is much less well developed. Among the challenges are the propensity of PTMs to agglomerate and the tendency for agglomeration to block reactant access of catalyst active sites. Nevertheless, the pervasive presence of transition metal sulfur clusters metalloenzymes or cofactors that catalyze reduction reactions and the justifiable proliferation of studies of two-dimensional (2D) metal-chalcogenides as reduction catalysts point to the promise of well-defined and controllable PTMs as reduction catalysts. Here, we report the fabrication of agglomeration-immune, reactant-accessible, capping-ligand-free Co II Mo 6 IV S 24 n– clusters as periodic arrays in a water-stable, hierarchically porous Zr-metal–organic framework (MOF; NU1K) by first installing a disk-like Anderson polyoxometalate, Co III Mo 6 VI O 24 m– , in size-matched micropores where the siting is established via difference electron density (DED) X-ray diffraction (XRD) experiments. Flowing H 2 S, while heating, reduces molybdenum(VI) ions to Mo(IV) and quantitatively replaces oxygen anions with sulfur anions (S 2– , HS – , S 2 2– ). DED maps show that MOF-templated POM-to-PTM conversion leaves clusters individually isolated in open-channel-connected micropores. Importantly, the structure of the immobilized cluster as determined, in part, by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) analysis, and pair distribution function (PDF) analysis of total X-ray scattering agrees well with the theoretically simulated structure. PTM@MOF displays both electrocatalytic and photocatalytic competency for hydrogen evolution. Nevertheless, the initially installed PTM appears to be a precatalyst, gaining competency only after the loss of ~3 to 6 sulfurs and exposure to hydride-forming metal ions.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2023

WellSTIC: A Cost-Effective Sensor for Performing Point Dilution Tests to Measure Groundwater Velocity in Shallow Aquifers

Many individual measurement points are required to characterize groundwater velocity within an aquifer. Groundwater velocity is most commonly measured using a network of >5 cm diameter monitoring wells, which, if not already present at a site, are expensive and labor-intensive to install. Drive-point piezometers—simple, cost-effective wells that can be installed by hand—are a common tool for sampling groundwater in shallow, alluvial aquifers, but most groundwater velocity measurement techniques require equipment that is too large for these narrow (usually <2 cm inside diameter) piezometers. In this technical note, we introduce a low-cost sensor and well packer system (<$90 USD) for performing point dilution tests in narrow piezometers. Field data show that the magnitude of groundwater velocity measured with this technique agrees with velocities computed from natural gradient tracer tests. Additionally, with proper calibration, these sensors can be used to continuously monitor in-well specific conductance, either during inter-well tracer tests with saline tracers or for water quality monitoring. Finally, this system is a viable tool for rapid assessment of the magnitude of groundwater velocity in shallow aquifers.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2024

62°S Witnesses the Transition of Boundary Layer Marine Aerosol Pattern Over the Southern Ocean (50°S–68°S, 63°E– 150°E) During the Spring and Summer: Results From MARCUS (I)

The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Mobile Facility-2 was installed onboard the research vessel Aurora Australis to measure aerosol properties during the 2017-2018 Measurement of Aerosols, Radiation, and CloUds over the pristine Southern ocean (MARCUS) Experiment, providing unique data on aerosols latitudinal and seasonal variation, including south of 60 degrees S where previous observations are scarce. Data from a Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN) counter and Ultra-High-Sensitivity Aerosol Spectrometer show that both the number concentration (N-CCN) and size distribution of CCN-active aerosols, with diameters (D) between 60 nm < D < 1,000 nm are different over the North Southern Ocean (NSO) (50 degrees S-60 degrees S) and the South Southern Ocean (SSO) (62 degrees S-68 degrees S). The average NSO N-CCN at 0.2% and 0.5% supersaturation were 28% and 49% less than that over the SSO. This increase of CCN over the SSO is caused by the increase of aerosols with 60 nm < D < 200 nm, consistent with calculations of Aerosol Scattering Angstrom Exponents derived from a nephelometer. Aerosol hygroscopicity growth factor measured by the Hygroscopic Tandem Differential Mobility Analyzer stayed close to 1.41 for aerosols with 50 nm < D < 250 nm over the SSO, but increased from 1.30 to 1.67 over the NSO, indicating different chemical compositions. Both CCN and Ice Nucleating Particles (INPs) showed a stronger variation with season than with latitude. The variation of heat-labile and presumably proteinacous INPs suggests an increase of ice nucleating-active microbes in summer.

Niu, Qing↗

DOE OSTI2023

All-polymer organic solar cells with nano-to-micron hierarchical morphology and large light receiving angle

Distributed photovoltaics in living environment harvest the sunlight in different incident angles throughout the day. The development of planer solar cells with large light-receiving angle can reduce the requirements in installation form factor and is therefore urgently required. Here, thin film organic photovoltaics with nano-sized phase separation integrated in micro-sized surface topology is demonstrated as an ideal solution to proposed applications. All-polymer solar cells, by means of a newly developed sequential processing, show large magnitude hierarchical morphology with facilitated exciton-to-carrier conversion. The nano fibrilar donor-acceptor network and micron-scale optical field trapping structure in combination contributes to an efficiency of 19.06% (certified 18.59%), which is the highest value to date for all-polymer solar cells. Furthermore, the micron-sized surface topology also contributes to a large light-receiving angle. A 30% improvement of power gain is achieved for the hierarchical morphology comparing to the flat-morphology devices. These inspiring results show that all-polymer solar cell with hierarchical features are particularly suitable for the commercial applications of distributed photovoltaics due to its low installation requirement.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2022

Datasets of a Multizone Office Building under Different HVAC System Operation Scenarios

Abstract This study provides an open-source dataset of the measured weather data, building indoor data, and system data under the different test settings. The test building is the two-story Flexible Research Platform building at the US Department of Energy’s Oak Ridge National Laboratory, in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Four heating tests and three cooling tests were conducted. The 1-min interval of weather, building indoor data, and system data from each test setting are provided. Actual weather data were collected from a weather station installed on the roof. This paper describes information on the test building and installed sensors, data collection method, and data validation. The provided dataset can be employed to understand HVAC system conditions and building indoor conditions under different HVAC system operations and the performance of building envelope without HVAC system operation using free-floating test data. Additionally, it can be used for empirical validation of the building energy modelling engine.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2024

Design of robot grippers for binder jet products handling

Dimension accuracy, damage minimization, and defect detection are essential in manufacturing processes, especially additive manufacturing. These types of challenges may arise either during the manufacture of a product or its use. The repeatability of the process is vital in additive manufacturing systems. However, human users may lose concentration and, thus, would be a great alternative as an assistant. Depending on the nature of work, a robot’s fingers might vary, for example, mechanical, electrical, vacuum, two-fingers, and three-fingers. In addition, the end effector plays a vital role in picking up an object in the advanced manufacturing process. However, inbuilt robotic fingers may not be appropriate in different production environments. In this research presented here considering metal binder jet additive manufacturing, the two-finger end- effectors are proposed design, analysis, and experiment to pick up an object after completing the production process from a specific location. The final designs were further printed by using a 3D metal printer and installed in the existing robotic systems. These new designs are used successfully to hold the object from the specific location by reducing the contact force that was not possible with the previously installed end effector's finger. In addition, a numerical study was conducted in order to compare the flowability of the geometric shape of finger's free areas.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2026

An AI-driven framework for evaluating local and state authorities’ permitting processes

The demand for new energy infrastructure is increasing across the United States, but heterogenous permitting processes and embedded requirements across different local jurisdictions can cause project delays, increase “soft costs,” and hinder developer expansion. This study analyzes the variability in local permitting requirements across the U.S. and develops a quantitative approach to describe their clarity and effectiveness in enabling infrastructure project development. By using an Energy Language Model (ELM), a large language model (LLM) for energy technologies, we systematically gathered permitting information from nearly 300 state-, county-, and city-level documents, creating a structured dataset of requirements and procedures on an unprecedented scale and speed. Our analysis revealed that local (city and county) permitting requirement documents are underrepresented compared to state-level guidance documents, which can impede timely and cost-effective installation of new electric infrastructure. Our validation process showed that the final database has an accuracy of approximately 95%. We, further, created a new quantitative method to score permitting requirements for clarity and efficiency, with electric vehicle supply equipment as an initial use case. The average local permitting document scored a 1.8 out of 5, which we interpret as meaning that half of the requirements developers face when installing electric infrastructure are ambiguous, increasing both cost and time. We also created a “Generalized Permit Process”, highlighting common procedural steps and identifying specific opportunities for municipalities to improve their documentation. This research establishes a systematic and scalable framework for evaluating the complexities of local infrastructure permitting processes by combining LLM-powered data collection and quantitative scoring. The framework enables policymakers and developers to identify and mitigate procedural bottlenecks, with the expectation that these improvements can accelerate application review and approval, reduce project costs, and expedite connection to utility distribution grids. As a foundational approach for streamlining local project development processes, this study’s methods are intended to be extended to a wide range of energy applications.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗