Results for “thermochemical conversion” — Page 8

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

A Dynamic Testing Approach for Particulate Erosion–Corrosion for Gas Turbine Coatings

Particle interactions in gas turbine engines can be multicomponent, complex phenomena leading to the degradation of thermal (TBCs) and environmental barrier coatings (EBCs) meant to protect engine components. Ingestion of particles into the engine can lead to recession of coatings due to particle erosion. Similarly, these same particles can become molten, adhere to coatings and result in thermochemical corrosion of coating materials. Particle erosion testing is often carried out where the particles are injected into a gas stream, accelerated within a nozzle, and impinge on sample. Conversely, most molten particle corrosion testing is often done in static laboratory furnaces, which does not capture the dynamic nature of deposition in application. Nevertheless, these damage mechanisms are often tested separately and no single standard exists to test both erosive and corrosive particle interactions with coating materials under relevant operating conditions for gas turbine engines. Understanding the synergies of particle interactions in engines is crucial in determining operating lifetimes of potential coating materials. Such considerations emphasize the need for realistic approaches in standardizing particle interaction testing in combustion environments. The current study outlines initial efforts at NASA Glenn’s Erosion Burner Rig Facility in improving dynamic erosion/corrosion testing methods by assessing the durability of state-of-the-art (SOA) TBC material 7 wt.% yttria stabilized zirconia (7YSZ) as a function of particle deposition rate, burner temperature, and particle size. Calibration data to determine particle deposition rate will be presented, and mass and optical profilometry measurements were utilized to estimate mass/volume loss versus deposition per increment of particulate used over time. Electron microscopy analyses were then carried out to assess coating damage after testing.

TBC↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

A Dynamic Testing Approach for Particulate Erosion–Corrosion for Gas Turbine Coatings

Particle interactions in gas turbine engines can be multicomponent, complex phenomena leading to the degradation of thermal (TBCs) and environmental barrier coatings (EBCs) meant to protect engine components. Ingestion of particles into the engine can lead to recession of coatings due to particle erosion. Similarly, these same particles can become molten, adhere to coatings and result in thermochemical corrosion of coating materials. Particle erosion testing is often carried out where the particles are injected into a gas stream, accelerated within a nozzle, and impinge on sample. Conversely, most molten particle corrosion testing is often done in static laboratory furnaces, which does not capture the dynamic nature of deposition in application. Nevertheless, these damage mechanisms are often tested separately and no single standard exists to test both erosive and corrosive particle interactions with coating materials under relevant operating conditions for gas turbine engines. Understanding the synergies of particle interactions in engines is crucial in determining operating lifetimes of potential coating materials. Such considerations emphasize the need for realistic approaches in standardizing particle interaction testing in combustion environments. The current study outlines initial efforts at NASA Glenn’s Erosion Burner Rig Facility in improving dynamic erosion/corrosion testing methods by assessing the durability of state-of-the-art (SOA) TBC material 7 wt.% yttria stabilized zirconia (7YSZ) as a function of particle deposition rate, burner temperature, and particle size. Calibration data to determine particle deposition rate will be presented, and mass and optical profilometry measurements were utilized to estimate mass/volume loss versus deposition per increment of particulate used over time. Electron microscopy analyses were then carried out to assess coating damage after testing.

TBC↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

A Dynamic Testing Approach for Particulate Erosion–Corrosion for Gas Turbine Coatings

Particle interactions in gas turbine engines can be multicomponent, complex phenomena leading to the degradation of thermal (TBCs) and environmental barrier coatings (EBCs) meant to protect engine components. Ingestion of particles into the engine can lead to recession of coatings due to particle erosion. Similarly, these same particles can become molten, adhere to coatings and result in thermochemical corrosion of coating materials. Particle erosion testing is often carried out where the particles are injected into a gas stream, accelerated within a nozzle, and impinge on sample. Conversely, most molten particle corrosion testing is often done in static laboratory furnaces, which does not capture the dynamic nature of deposition in application. Nevertheless, these damage mechanisms are often tested separately and no single standard exists to test both erosive and corrosive particle interactions with coating materials under relevant operating conditions for gas turbine engines. Understanding the synergies of particle interactions in engines is crucial in determining operating lifetimes of potential coating materials. Such considerations emphasize the need for realistic approaches in standardizing particle interaction testing in combustion environments. The current study outlines initial efforts at NASA Glenn’s Erosion Burner Rig Facility in improving dynamic erosion/corrosion testing methods by assessing the durability of state-of-the-art (SOA) TBC material 7 wt.% yttria stabilized zirconia (7YSZ) as a function of particle deposition rate, burner temperature, and particle size. Calibration data to determine particle deposition rate will be presented, and mass and optical profilometry measurements were utilized to estimate mass/volume loss versus deposition per increment of particulate used over time. Electron microscopy analyses were then carried out to assess coating damage after testing.

burner rig↗

DOE OSTI2023

Enhanced microbial production of protocatechuate from engineered sorghum using an integrated feedstock-to-product conversion technology

Building a stronger bioeconomy requires production capabilities that are largely generated through microbial genetic engineering. Plant feedstocks can additionally be genetically engineered to generate desirable feedstock traits and provide precursors for direct microbial conversion into desired products. The oleaginous yeast Rhodosporidium toruloides is a promising organism for this type of conversion as it can grow on a wide range of deconstructed biomass and consume a variety of carbon sources. Here, we leveraged R. toruloides native p-coumaric acid consumption pathway to accumulate protocatechuate (PCA) from 4-hydroxybenzoate (4HBA) released from a sorghum feedstock line genetically engineered to overproduce 4HBA. We did so by generating and evaluating an R. toruloides strain that accumulates PCA, RSΔ12623. We then show that at two scales a cholinium lysinate pretreatment with enzymatic saccharification successfully extracts 95% of the 4HBA from the engineered sorghum biomass while producing deconstructed lignin that can be more efficiently depolymerized in a subsequent thermochemical reaction. We also demonstrate that strain RSΔ12623 can convert more than 95% of 4HBA to PCA while consuming >95% of the glucose and >80% of the xylose present in sorghum hydrolysates. Finally, to evaluate the scalability of such fermentations, we conducted the conversion of 4HBA to PCA in a 2 L bioreactor under controlled conditions. Importantly, this work demonstrates the potential of purposefully producing aromatic precursors in planta that can be liberated during biomass deconstruction for direct microbial conversion to desirable bioproducts.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

NASA NTRS1987

Chemical interactions between the present-day Martian atmosphere and surface minerals

Thermochemical and photochemical reactions between surface minerals and present-day atmospheric constituents are predicted to produce microscopic effects on the surfaces of mineral grains. Relevant reactions hypothesized in the literature include conversions of silicates and volcanic glasses to clay minerals, conversion of ferrous to ferric compounds, and formation of carbonates, nitrates, and sulfates. These types of surface-atmosphere interactions are important for addressing issues such as chemical weathering of minerals, biological potential of the surface environment, and atmospheric stability in both present and past Martian epochs. It is emphasized that the product of these reactions will be observable and interpretable on the microscopic surface layers of Martian surface rocks using modern techniques with obvious implications for sample return from Mars. Macroscopic products of chemical weathering reactions in past Martian epochs are also expected in Martian surface material. These products are expected not only as a result of reactions similar to those proceeding today but also due to aqueous reactions in past epochs in which liquid water was putatively present. It may prove very difficult or impossible however to determine definitively from the relic macroscopic product alone either the exact weathering process which led to its formation or the identity of its weathered parent mineral. The enormous advantages of studying Martian chemical weathering by investigating the microscopic products of present-day chemical reactions on sample surfaces are very apparent.

Prinn, Ronald↗

NASA NTRS1988

Chemical interactions between the present-day Martian atmosphere and surface minerals: Implications for sample return

Thermochemical and photochemical reactions between surface minerals and present-day atmospheric constituents are predicted to produce microscopic effects on the surface of mineral grains. Relevant reactions hypothesized in the literature include conversions of silicates and volcanic glasses to clay minerals, conversion of ferrous to ferric compounds, and formation of carbonates, nitrates, and sulfates. These types of surface-atmosphere weathering of minerals, biological potential of the surface environment, and atmospheric stability in both present and past Martian epochs. It is emphasized that the product of these reactions will be observable and interpretable on the microscopic surface layers of Martian surface rocks using modern techniques with obvious implications for sample return from Mars. Macroscopic products of chemical weathering reactions in past Martian epochs are also expected in Martian surface materials. These products are expected not only as a result of reactions similar to those proceeding today but also due to aqueous reactions in past epochs in which liquid water was putatively present. It may prove very difficult or impossible, however, to determine definitively from the relic macroscopic product alone either the exact weathering process which led to its formation of the identity of its weathering parent mineral. The enormous advantages of studying the Martian chemical weathering by investigating the microscopic products of present-day chemical reactions on sample surfaces are very apparent.

Prinn, Ronald↗

DOE OSTI2025

Techno-economic analysis of sugarcane bagasse and straw conversion into cellulosic ethanol via consolidated bioprocessing

Cellulosic biofuels offer a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels and a means to mitigate climate change. Consolidated bioprocessing (CBP) featuring engineered thermophilic bacteria, combined with mechanical disruption during fermentation (cotreatment), has potential to lower production costs compared to featuring thermochemical pretreatment and added cellulase. A techno-economic analysis was conducted (230 million L ethanol/year) from sugarcane bagasse and straw at stand-alone facilities generating electricity from residues. Three scenarios were evaluated: Conventional, featuring hydrothermal pretreatment, fungal cellulase, and yeast fermentation (current commercial standard); Mid-term CBP, relying on bagasse solubilization without pretreatment or cotreatment; and Mature CBP, incorporating cotreatment but no pretreatment. Results for these scenarios in this order were: fixed capital investment (CapEx) $\$$589M, $\$$658M, and $\$$472M; net annual revenue (EBITDA) $\$$56M, $\$$96M, and $\$$94M; and minimum ethanol selling price 0.73, 0.61, and 0.48 US$\$$/L. Payback periods were 10.5, 6.9, and 5.1 years, while all scenarios showed <5 years at European prices for scales >100M L/year. Sensitivity and risk analysis highlighted ethanol price as the most critical variable. It is notable that Mid-term CBP had shorter payback times and better overall economic feasibility compared to Conventional. Our results underscore opportunities for research-driven innovation on low-cost cellulosic ethanol technologies in Brazil and elsewhere.

Consolidated bioprocessing↗

DOE OSTI2021

Operational Limits of Redox Metal Oxides Performing Thermochemical Water Splitting

Solar thermochemical hydrogen production is an attractive technology that stores intermittent solar energy in the form of chemical bonds. Efficient operation requires the identification of a redox-active metal oxide (MO x ) material that can achieve high conversion of water to hydrogen at minimal energy input. Water splitting occurs by consecutive reduction and reoxidation reactions of MO x . MO x is reduced to MO x-δ and, in the second step, is reoxidized by water recovering the initial MO x and generate H 2 . The material must reduce at temperatures achievable in concentrated solar receiver/reactors, while maintaining a thermodynamic driving force to split water. At equilibrium, extent of reduction depends on temperature and oxygen partial pressure, and in this analysis, a set of thermodynamic properties, namely, enthalpy and entropy of oxygen vacancy formation, is sufficient to represent MO x . Herein, a method to easily classify materials based on these thermodynamic properties under any condition of oxygen partial pressure and temperature is presented. This method is based on fundamental thermodynamic principles and is applicable for any redox material with known thermodynamic properties. Despite the simplicity of the method, it is believed that this analysis will support future research in targeting thermodynamic properties of redox-active metal oxides.

water splitting↗

DOE OSTI2024

Concentrated solar thermal fuels production by electric field enhanced two step gas splitting (Final Technical Report)

Solar thermochemical CO 2 splitting (STCS) is plagued by high solar field costs due to the extraordinarily high temperatures (~1500 °C) required. In STCS, a reduction/oxidation active material, CeO 2 , is thermally reduced to CeO 2-δ generating O2 at ~1500 °C; then CeO 2-δ is re-oxidized by CO 2 to re-form CeO 2 and CO, a precursor to liquid fuels. Before this project, there were no known methods to decrease the reduction temperature while maintaining high conversion of the CO 2 to CO; thus, projected solar thermal CO costs had stagnated.

10 SYNTHETIC FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2023

Thermodynamic controls on the synthesis, structure and reactivity of materials for energy (Final Report)

The major objectives have been: a) to advance and use unique calorimetric capabilities to determine the energetics of oxide and other materials having possible energy applications, with an emphasis on new materials for batteries, fuel cells and solar energy conversion, b) to understand, in terms of both macroscopic energetics and microscopic structure and bonding, the interplay of defect chemistry, oxidation-reduction, and size effects at the bulk and nanoscale in determining materials properties. This project emphasizes mixed ionic-electronic conduction materials containing transition metals of variable valence, especially perovskites and lithium containing phases, with M = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni. The thermochemistry of new families of complex halide, chalcogenide, nitride and hybrid (organic-inorganic) perovskite materials were explored. The major and unique technique employed is high temperature oxide melt solution calorimetry, with careful attention given to materials synthesis and characterization. The thermochemical studies will be coupled with structural studies, especially to characterize order-disorder phenomena by in situ high temperature diffraction techniques.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2024

Tandem Electrocatalytic–Thermocatalytic Conversion of CO 2 to Aromatic Hydrocarbons

The reaction of CO 2 with H 2 O to produce aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene isomers) (BTEX) represents a promising pathway for converting CO 2 to value-added liquid products. However, this reaction cannot be achieved in a single electrochemical or thermochemical process. This work utilizes tandem electrochemical-thermochemical reactors as a new paradigm by starting with CO 2 and H 2 O as the feed in a membrane electrode assembly (MEA) to produce C 2 H 4 , which subsequently undergoes thermochemical aromatization using a Gallium- and Phosphorus-modified zeolite ZSM-5 catalyst (Ga/ZSM-5/P) at ambient pressure to produce BTEX. The current study also demonstrates the potential advantage of the tandem strategy in mitigating negative effects of water by testing the tandem reactor system under different hydration conditions and by performing in-situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray absorption (XAS) characterization of the aromatization catalysts. Finally, these results highlight the advantage of using the tandem process with the use of a water trap before the thermochemical reactor.

10 SYNTHETIC FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2021

Oxidation and pyrolysis of methyl propyl ether

The ignition, oxidation, and pyrolysis chemistry of methyl propyl ether (MPE) was probed experimentally at several different conditions, and a comprehensive chemical kinetic model was constructed to help understand the observations, with many of the key parameters computed using quantum chemistry and transition state theory. Experiments were carried out in a shock tube measuring time variation of CO concentrations, in a flow tube measuring product concentrations, and in a rapid compression machine (RCM) measuring ignition delay times. The detailed reaction mechanism was constructed using the Reaction Mechanism Generator software. Sensitivity and flux analyses were used to identify key rate and thermochemical parameters, which were then computed using quantum chemistry to improve the mechanism. Validation of the final model against the 1-20 bar 600-1500 K experimental data is presented with a discussion of the kinetics. The model is in excellent agreement with most of the shock tube and RCM data. Strong non-monotonic variation in conversion and product distribution is observed in the flow-tube experiments as the temperature is increased, and unusually strong pressure dependence and significant heat release during the compression stroke is observed in the RCM experiments. These observations are largely explained by a close competition between radical decomposition and addition to O2 at different sites in MPE; this causes small shifts in conditions to lead to big shifts in the dominant reaction pathways. The validated mechanism was used to study the chemistry occurring during ignition in a diesel engine, simulated using Ignition Quality Test (IQT) conditions. At the IQT conditions, where the MPE concentration is higher, bimolecular reactions of peroxy radicals are much more important than in the RCM.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2024

Data for Hydrothermal Conditioning of Oleaginous Yeast Cells to Enable Recovery of Lipids as Potential Drop-in Fuel Precursors

Lipids produced using oleaginous yeast cells are an emerging feedstock to manufacture commercially valuable oleochemicals ranging from pharmaceuticals to lipid-derived biofuels. Production of biofuels using oleaginous yeast is a multistep procedure that requires yeast cultivation and harvesting, lipid recovery, and conversion of the lipids to biofuels. The quantitative recovery of the total intracellular lipid from the yeast cells is a critical step during the development of a bioprocess. Their rigid cell walls often make them resistant to lysis. The existing methods include mechanical, chemical, biological and thermochemical lysis of yeast cell walls followed by solvent extraction. In this study, an aqueous thermal pretreatment was explored as a method for lysing the cell wall of the oleaginous yeast Rhodotorula toruloides for lipid recovery. Hydrothermal pretreatment for 60 min at 121 °C with a dry cell weight of 7% (w/v) in the yeast slurry led to a recovery of 84.6 ± 3.2% (w/w) of the total lipids when extracted with organic solvents. The conventional sonication and acid-assisted thermal cell lysis led to a lipid recovery yield of 99.8 ± 0.03% (w/w) and 109.5 ± 1.9% (w/w), respectively. The fatty acid profiles of the hydrothermally pretreated cells and freeze-dried control were similar, suggesting that the thermal lysis of the cells did not degrade the lipids. This work demonstrates that hydrothermal pretreatment of yeast cell slurry at 121 °C for 60 min is a robust and sustainable method for cell conditioning to extract intracellular microbial lipids for biofuel production and provides a baseline for further scale-up and process integration.

Conversion↗

DOE OSTI2022

High‐Performance and Durable Fuel Cells using Co/Sr‐Free Fluorite‐Based Mixed Conducting (Pr,Ce)O 2‐δ Cathode

Abstract A major challenge to overcome in demonstrating solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) to be suitable as efficient and environmentally friendly energy conversion devices capable of addressing pressing clean energy and environmental needs is to surmount chemical and thermo‐mechanical instabilities in their operational phase. To date, perovskite‐based mixed conducting cathodes, which include inherent Co and Sr elements for enhanced reactivity and conductivity, have been intensively studied. These Co/Sr‐based oxides, however, exhibit severe thermochemical expansion and suffer from Sr surface segregation, ultimately degrading the electrode performance. Here, high‐performance and durable SOFCs are demonstrated by employing a Co/Sr‐free fluorite‐based mixed conducting (Pr,Ce)O 2‐δ (PCO) cathode eminently compatible with fluorite‐based solid electrolytes. The nanocolumnar PCO electrode developed in this study provides not only a remarkable low level of electrode resistance (e.g., ≈0.05 Ω cm 2 at 600 °C) but also exceptional long‐term stability (e.g., a degradation rate 15 times slower compared to the state‐of‐the‐art La 0.6 Sr 0.4 CoO 3‐δ perovskite). The competitive peak power densities of an anode‐supported single cell with the PCO cathode are also successively achieved, recording a value of 0.92 W cm −2 at 600 °C. These findings herald the development of new Co/Sr‐free electrodes for SOFCs at intermediate temperatures.

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗

DOE OSTI2024

Hydrothermal conditioning of oleaginous yeast cells to enable recovery of lipids as potential drop-in fuel precursors

Abstract Background Lipids produced using oleaginous yeast cells are an emerging feedstock to manufacture commercially valuable oleochemicals ranging from pharmaceuticals to lipid-derived biofuels. Production of biofuels using oleaginous yeast is a multistep procedure that requires yeast cultivation and harvesting, lipid recovery, and conversion of the lipids to biofuels. The quantitative recovery of the total intracellular lipid from the yeast cells is a critical step during the development of a bioprocess. Their rigid cell walls often make them resistant to lysis. The existing methods include mechanical, chemical, biological and thermochemical lysis of yeast cell walls followed by solvent extraction. In this study, an aqueous thermal pretreatment was explored as a method for lysing the cell wall of the oleaginous yeast Rhodotorula toruloides for lipid recovery. Results Hydrothermal pretreatment for 60 min at 121 °C with a dry cell weight of 7% (w/v) in the yeast slurry led to a recovery of 84.6 ± 3.2% (w/w) of the total lipids when extracted with organic solvents. The conventional sonication and acid-assisted thermal cell lysis led to a lipid recovery yield of 99.8 ± 0.03% (w/w) and 109.5 ± 1.9% (w/w), respectively. The fatty acid profiles of the hydrothermally pretreated cells and freeze-dried control were similar, suggesting that the thermal lysis of the cells did not degrade the lipids. Conclusion This work demonstrates that hydrothermal pretreatment of yeast cell slurry at 121 °C for 60 min is a robust and sustainable method for cell conditioning to extract intracellular microbial lipids for biofuel production and provides a baseline for further scale-up and process integration. Graphical abstract

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2020

Increasing the Carbohydrate Output of Bamboo Using a Combinatorial Pretreatment

Bamboo represents a family of highly lignified biomass with significant resistance to cellulolytic enzyme degradation, and typically, a severe thermochemical pretreatment is needed to overcome its recalcitrance for producing fermentable sugars. Combinatorial pretreatments with a low holding temperature and low alkali dosage were investigated in this study in an attempt to remove the impediments to the accessibility of bamboo cellulose to enzymes and enable the efficient conversion of hemicellulose. Upon autohydrolysis at 180 °C, more than half of the hemicellulose (~58%) was solubilized, contributing to further delignification in the subsequent dilute alkali extraction (DAE). The solubilized hemicellulose mainly existed in the form of soluble xylan, which, after a novel endo-β-1,4-xylanase hydrolysis, generated a large amount of xylo-oligosaccharides with the xylobiose and xylotriose proportion reaching 72.99%. After the fractionation with combinatorial pretreatments, cellulose and xylose enzymatic hydrolysis yields were 73.36 and 86.98%, respectively, representing increments of 22.42 and 43.15% compared with the sole autohydrolysis process. Fluorescence microscopy (FM) and confocal Raman microscopy (CRM) images revealed that these dramatic improvements were caused by the deconstruction of the bamboo cell walls, including separation of the adjacent cell walls, removal of hemicellulose and lignin, migration and redistribution of lignin, and the increased exposure of cellulose. In addition, lignin chemical structure variations during the combinatorial pretreatment were analyzed with gel permeation chromatography (GPC), 2D HSQC NMR, and 31 P NMR, and the correlation between the lignin structure and enzymatic hydrolysis efficiency was investigated. In summary, this study highlighted the application of combinatorial pretreatments to maximize the carbohydrate output of bamboo and unveiled their mechanism that enabled the high-efficiency utilization of bamboo.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2024

In situ thermal conductivity measurement revealing kinetics of thermochemical reactions

Utilizing thermochemical reactions for thermal energy storage and solar fuel production has been an emerging research topic. Thermal transport properties of the materials are an important parameter that can determine the kinetics and efficiency of thermochemical reactions. With the increasing number of new thermochemical materials (TCMs); however, there is a lack of reliable techniques to monitor the thermal transport property of the materials and their changes as a function of reactions in real time. In this work, we report the in situ monitoring of thermochemical reactions using modulated photothermal radiometry (MPR). The thermal conductivities of two TCMs, namely, calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) 2 ) and Ba 0.15 Sr 0.85 FeO 3–δ (BSF1585), were measured as a function of temperature and time using the MPR technique. The measured thermal conductivities were correlated to the reaction. The work has two significant contributions to the research communities. First, it provides a non-invasive diagnostic tool for monitoring the thermal transport properties of TCMs that can potentially be a high-throughput measurement technique conducive to optimizing TCMs, reactors, and related thermal systems. Second, for TCMs that show observable changes in thermal transport properties, a correlation between the measured thermal conductivity and the conversion fraction of the reaction can be established for monitoring the reaction kinetics based on thermal characterization.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2025

Engineering design of a kW-scale continuous reactor-heat exchanger for high temperature discharge of particle-based thermochemical energy storage

This study investigates the theoretical design parameters and thermal performance of a kW-scale continuous oxidation reactor for high temperature (~1000 °C) thermochemical energy storage (TCES) applications. The concept comprises a counter-current particle-based system that includes a reaction zone with a heat exchanger to extract the heat produced from the oxidation reaction. Both above and below the hot reactive volume are sensible heat recuperation zones to enable the feed and removal of particles and oxidizing gas near ambient temperature during steady state operation. Two operation types for the reaction zone are studied, a fluidized bed reactor (FBR) and a moving bed reactor (MBR). The results of the parametric analysis suggest that the MBR requires a smaller volume per kW of heat produced, achieving power densities in excess of 2500 kW/m3 compared to ~ 900 kW/m 3 in the FBR. Additionally, the MBR achieves between 0.71 and 0.99 oxidation conversions compared to between 0.23 and 0.38 conversions in the FBR with the same volumes and flowrates. However, the FBR has the potential to maintain a uniform reactor temperature which can produce heat transfer fluid (HTF) outlet temperatures as high as the reactor temperature, i.e., ~1000 °C, whereas the MBR produces variable reactor temperatures that can create overheating zones and low HTF outlet temperatures (< 800 °C) depending on the operating conditions selected. Future work should aim at understanding the coupled fluid dynamics, heat and mass transfer, and thermochemical reaction for any given combination of reactor volume and contacting patterns. Here, these studies should be complemented by experimental work on particle-gas TCES reactors.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗