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NASA NTRS2004

FAA Pilot Knowledge Tests: Learning or Rote Memorization?

The FAA pilot knowledge test is a multiple-choice assessment tool designed to measure the extent to which applicants for FAA pilot certificates and ratings have mastered a corpus of required aeronautical knowledge. All questions that appear on the test are drawn from a database of questions that is made available to the public. The FAA and others are concerned that releasing test questions may encourage students to focus their study on memorizing test questions. To investigate this concern, we created our own database of questions that differed from FAA questions in four different ways. Our first three question types were derived by modifying existing FAA questions: (1) rewording questions and answers; (2) shuffling answers; and (3) substituting different figures for problems that used figures. Our last question type posed a question about required knowledge for which no FAA question currently exists. Forty-eight student pilots completed one of two paper-and-pencil knowledge tests that contained a mix of these experimental questions. The results indicate significantly lower scores for some question types when compared to unaltered FAA questions to which participants had prior access.

Casner, Stephen M.↗

NASA NTRS2010

Heritage and Advanced Technology Systems Engineering Lessons Learned from NASA Space Missions

Use of heritage and new technology is necessary/enabling to implementing small, low cost missions, yet overruns decrease the ability to sustain future mission flight rates The majority of the cost growth drivers seen in the D&NF study were embedded early during formulation phase and later realized during the development and I&T phases Cost drivers can be avoided or significantly decreased by project management and SE emphasis on early identification of risks and realistic analyses SE processes that emphasize an assessment of technology within the mission system to identify technical issues in the design or operational use of the technology. Realistic assessment of new and heritage spacecraft technology assumptions , identification of risks and mitigation strategies. Realistic estimates of effort required to inherit existing or qualify new technology, identification of risks to estimates and develop mitigation strategies. Allocation of project reserves for risk-based mitigation strategies of each individual area of heritage or new technology. Careful tailoring of inheritance processes to ensure due diligence.

Barley, Bryan↗

NASA NTRS1993

Retrieval of ice thickness from polarimetric SAR data

We describe a potential procedure for retrieving ice thickness from multi-frequency polarimetric SAR data for thin ice. This procedure includes first masking out the thicker ice types with a simple classifier and then deriving the thickness of the remaining pixels using a model-inversion technique. The technique used to derive ice thickness from polarimetric observations is provided by a numerical estimator or neural network. A three-layer perceptron implemented with the backpropagation algorithm is used in this investigation with several improved aspects for a faster convergence rate and a better accuracy of the neural network. These improvements include weight initialization, normalization of the output range, the selection of offset constant, and a heuristic learning algorithm. The performance of the neural network is demonstrated by using training data generated by a theoretical scattering model for sea ice matched to the database of interest. The training data are comprised of the polarimetric backscattering coefficients of thin ice and the corresponding input ice parameters to the scattering model. The retrieved ice thickness from the theoretical backscattering coefficients is compare with the input ice thickness to the scattering model to illustrate the accuracy of the inversion method. Results indicate that the network convergence rate and accuracy are higher when multi-frequency training sets are presented. In addition, the dominant backscattering coefficients in retrieving ice thickness are found by comparing the behavior of the network trained backscattering data at various incidence angels. After the neural network is trained with the theoretical backscattering data at various incidence anges, the interconnection weights between nodes are saved and applied to the experimental data to be investigated. In this paper, we illustrate the effectiveness of this technique using polarimetric SAR data collected by the JPL DC-8 radar over a sea ice scene.

Kwok, R.↗

NASA NTRS1976

Trapped particles and waves, and what can be learned from multisatellite experiments

Calculations concerning the pitch-angle diffusion resulting from resonant wave-particle interactions can lead to definitive predictions of equatorial pitch-angle distributions and rates of particle loss as a function of particle energy and L-value. Thus, given simultaneous high-altitude measurements of pitch-angle distributions and low-altitude measurements of precipitating fluxes as a function of energy and L, the importance of proposed wave-particle interactions can be verified or discarded. Since many wave-particle phenomena occur over large spatial and temporal scales, exact simultaneity in longitude and time is not necessary. Simultaneous low and high altitude (preferably nearly equatorial) particle measurements could thus greatly increase our understanding of trapped particles and their effects on the ionosphere. Furthermore, given a verified pitch-angle diffusion mechanism and simultaneous low- and high-altitude measurements, accurate lowto high-altitude mappings of field lines and magnetospheric boundaries (such as the plasmapause) could be obtained.

Lyons, L. R.↗

NASA NTRS1996

The X-31A quasi-tailless flight test results

A quasi-tailless flight investigation was launched using the X-31A enhanced fighter maneuverability airplane. In-flight simulations were used to assess the effect of partial to total vertical tail removal. The rudder control surface was used to cancel the stabilizing effects of the vertical tail, and yaw thrust vector commands were used to restabilize and control the airplane. The quasi-tailless mode was flown supersonically with gentle maneuvering and subsonically in precision approaches and ground attack profiles. Pilot ratings and a full set of flight test measurements were recorded. This report describes the results obtained and emphasizes the lessons learned from the X-31A flight test experiment. Sensor-related issues and their importance to a quasi-tailless simulation and to ultimately controlling a directionally unstable vehicle are assessed. The X-31A quasi-tailless flight test experiment showed that tailless and reduced tail fighter aircraft are definitely feasible. When the capability is designed into the airplane from the beginning, the benefits have the potential to outweigh the added complexity required.

Bosworth, John T.↗

NASA NTRS2010

Neurolab: Final Report for the Ames Research Center Payload

Neurolab, the final Spacelab mission, launched on STS-90 on April 17, 1998, was dedicated to studying the nervous system. NASA cooperated with domestic and international partners to conduct the mission. ARC's (Ames Research Center's) Payload included 15 experiments designed to study the adaptation and development of the nervous system in microgravity. The payload had the largest number of Principal and Co-Investigators, largest complement of habitats and experiment unique equipment flown to date, and most diverse distribution of live specimens ever undertaken by ARC, including rodents, toadfish, swordtail fish, water snails, hornweed and crickets To facilitate tissue sharing and optimization of science objectives, investigators were grouped into four science discipline teams: Neuronal Plasticity, Mammalian Development, Aquatic, and Neurobiology. Several payload development challenges were experienced and required an extraordinary effort, by all involved, to meet the launch schedule. With respect to hardware and the total amount of recovered science, Neurolab was regarded as an overall success. However, a high mortality rate in one rodent group and several hardware anomalies occurred inflight that warranted postflight investigations. Hardware, science, and operations lessons were learned that should be taken into consideration by payload teams developing payloads for future Shuttle missions and the International Space Station.

Maese, A. Christopher↗

NASA NTRS2003

The Status of Cross Section Measurements for Neutron-induced Reactions Needed for Cosmic Ray Studies

Cosmic ray interactions with lunar rocks and meteorites produce small amounts of radionuclides and stable isotopes. Advances in Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) allow production rates to be measured routinely in well-documented lunar rocks and meteorites. These measurements are analyzed using theoretical models to learn about the object itself and the history of the cosmic rays that fell on it. Good cross section measurements are essential input to the theoretical calculations. Most primary cosmic ray particles are protons so reliable cross sections for proton-induced reactions are essential. A cross section is deemed accurate if measurements made by different experimenters using different techniques result in consistent values. Most cross sections for proton induced reactions are now well measured. However, good cross section measurements for neutron-induced reactions are still needed. These cross sections are required to fully account for all galactic cosmic ray interactions at depth in an extraterrestrial object. When primary galactic cosmic ray (GCR) particles interact with an object many secondary neutrons are produced, which also initiate spallation reactions. Thus, the total GCR contribution to the overall cosmogenic nuclide archive has to include the contribution from the secondary neutron interactions. Few relevant cross section measurements have been reported for neutron-induced reactions at neutron energies greater than approximately 20 MeV. The status of the cross section measurements using quasi-monoenergetic neutron energies at iThemba LABS, South Africa and white neutron beams at Los Alamos Neutron Science Center (LANSCE), Los Alamos are reported here.

Sisterson, J. M.↗

NASA NTRS2014

Application of Machine Learning Algorithms to the Study of Noise Artifacts in Gravitational-Wave Data

The sensitivity of searches for astrophysical transients in data from the Laser Interferometer Gravitationalwave Observatory (LIGO) is generally limited by the presence of transient, non-Gaussian noise artifacts, which occur at a high-enough rate such that accidental coincidence across multiple detectors is non-negligible. Furthermore, non-Gaussian noise artifacts typically dominate over the background contributed from stationary noise. These "glitches" can easily be confused for transient gravitational-wave signals, and their robust identification and removal will help any search for astrophysical gravitational-waves. We apply Machine Learning Algorithms (MLAs) to the problem, using data from auxiliary channels within the LIGO detectors that monitor degrees of freedom unaffected by astrophysical signals. Terrestrial noise sources may manifest characteristic disturbances in these auxiliary channels, inducing non-trivial correlations with glitches in the gravitational-wave data. The number of auxiliary-channel parameters describing these disturbances may also be extremely large; high dimensionality is an area where MLAs are particularly well-suited. We demonstrate the feasibility and applicability of three very different MLAs: Artificial Neural Networks, Support Vector Machines, and Random Forests. These classifiers identify and remove a substantial fraction of the glitches present in two very different data sets: four weeks of LIGO's fourth science run and one week of LIGO's sixth science run. We observe that all three algorithms agree on which events are glitches to within 10% for the sixth science run data, and support this by showing that the different optimization criteria used by each classifier generate the same decision surface, based on a likelihood-ratio statistic. Furthermore, we find that all classifiers obtain similar limiting performance, suggesting that most of the useful information currently contained in the auxiliary channel parameters we extract is already being used. Future performance gains are thus likely to involve additional sources of information, rather than improvements in the MLAs themselves.

gravitational-wave data↗

NASA NTRS2015

Orion Launch Abort System Performance on Exploration Flight Test 1

This paper will present an overview of the flight test objectives and performance of the Orion Launch Abort System during Exploration Flight Test-1. Exploration Flight Test-1, the first flight test of the Orion spacecraft, was managed and led by the Orion prime contractor, Lockheed Martin, and launched atop a United Launch Alliance Delta IV Heavy rocket. This flight test was a two-orbit, high-apogee, high-energy entry, low-inclination test mission used to validate and test systems critical to crew safety. This test included the first flight test of the Launch Abort System preforming Orion nominal flight mission critical objectives. NASA is currently designing and testing the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (MPCV). Orion will serve as NASA's new exploration vehicle to carry astronauts to deep space destinations and safely return them to earth. The Orion spacecraft is composed of four main elements: the Launch Abort System, the Crew Module, the Service Module, and the Spacecraft Adapter (Fig. 1). The Launch Abort System (LAS) provides two functions; during nominal launches, the LAS provides protection for the Crew Module from atmospheric loads and heating during first stage flight and during emergencies provides a reliable abort capability for aborts that occur within the atmosphere. The Orion Launch Abort System (LAS) consists of an Abort Motor to provide the abort separation from the Launch Vehicle, an Attitude Control Motor to provide attitude and rate control, and a Jettison Motor for crew module to LAS separation (Fig. 2). The jettison motor is used during a nominal launch to separate the LAS from the Launch Vehicle (LV) early in the flight of the second stage when it is no longer needed for aborts and at the end of an LAS abort sequence to enable deployment of the crew module's Landing Recovery System. The LAS also provides a Boost Protective Cover fairing that shields the crew module from debris and the aero-thermal environment during ascent. Although the Orion Program has tested a number of the critical systems of the Orion spacecraft on the ground, the launch environment cannot be replicated completely on Earth. A number of flight tests have been conducted and are planned to demonstrate the performance and enable certification of the Orion Spacecraft. Exploration Flight Test 1, the first flight test of the Orion spacecraft, was successfully flown on December 5, 2014 from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's Space Launch Complex 37. Orion's first flight was a two-orbit, high-apogee, high-energy entry, low-inclination test mission used to validate and test systems critical to crew safety, such as heat shield performance, separation events, avionics and software performance, attitude control and guidance, parachute deployment and recovery operations. One of the key separation events tested during this flight was the nominal jettison of the LAS. Data from this flight will be used to verify the function of the jettison motor to separate the Launch Abort System from the crew module so it can continue on with the mission. The LAS nominal jettison event on Exploration Flight Test 1 occurred at six minutes and twenty seconds after liftoff (See Fig. 3). The abort motor and attitude control motors were inert for Exploration Flight Test 1, since the mission did not require abort capabilities. A suite of developmental flight instrumentation was included on the flight test to provide data on spacecraft subsystems and separation events. This paper will focus on the flight test objectives and performance of the LAS during ascent and nominal jettison. Selected LAS subsystem flight test data will be presented and discussed in the paper. Exploration Flight Test -1 will provide critical data that will enable engineering to improve Orion's design and reduce risk for the astronauts it will protect as NASA continues to move forward on its human journey to Mars. The lessons learned from Exploration Flight Test 1 and the other Flight Test Vehicles will certainly contribute to the vehicle architecture of a human-rated space launch vehicle.

McCauley, R.↗

NASA NTRS2005

Flying SATS Higher Volume Operations: Training, Lessons Learned, and Pilots' Experiences

Developments in aviation, including new surveillance technologies and quicker, more economical small aircraft, have been identified as driving factors in a potential expansion of the use of non-towered, non-radar airports. The Small Aircraft Transportation System (SATS) project has developed the Higher Volume Operations (HVO) concept that enables pilots to safely arrive and depart these airports in instrument conditions at an increased rate as compared to today's procedures. This is achieved by transferring some traffic management tasks to centralized, ground-based automation, while assigning others to participating pilots aided by on-board tools. This paper describes strategies and lessons learned while training pilots to fly these innovative operations. Pilot approaches to using the experimental displays and dynamic altering systems during training are discussed. Potential operational benefits as well as pit-falls and frustrations expressed by subjects while learning to fly these new procedures are presented. Generally, pilots were comfortable with the procedures and the training process, and expressed interest in its near-term implementation.

Conway, Sheila↗

NASA NTRS2000

North Atlantic Aerosol Single Scattering Albedos: TARFOX and ACE-2 Results and Their Relation to Radiative Effects Derived from Satellite Optical Depths

Bergstrom and Russell estimated direct solar radiative flux changes caused by atmospheric aerosols over the mid-latitude North Atlantic Ocean under cloud-free and cloudy conditions. They excluded African dust aerosols, primarily by restricting calculations to latitudes 25-60 N. As inputs they used midvisible aerosol optical depth (AOD) maps derived from AVHRR satellite measurements and aerosol intensive properties determined primarily in the 1996 IGAC Troposheric Aerosol Radiative Forcing Observational Experiment (TARFOX). Those aerosol intensive properties, which included optical depth wavelength dependence and spectra of single scattering albedo (SSA) and scattering asymmetry parameter, were also checked against initial properties from the 1997 North Atlantic Aerosol Characterization Experiment (ACE 2). Bergstrom and Russell investigated the sensitivity of their derived flux changes to assumed input parameters, including midvisible AOD, SSA, and scattering asymmetry parameter. Although the sensitivity of net flux change at the tropopause to SSA was moderate over the ocean (e.g., a SSA uncertainty of 0.07 produced a flux-change uncertainty of 21%), the sensitivity over common land surfaces can be much larger. Also, flux changes within and below the aerosol layer, which affect atmospheric stability, heating rates, and cloud formation and persistence, are quite sensitive to aerosol SSA. Therefore, this paper focuses on the question: "What have we learned from TARFOX and ACE 2 regarding aerosol single scattering albedo?" Three techniques were used in TARFOX to determine midvisible SSA. One of these derived SSA as a best-fit parameter in comparing radiative flux changes measured by airborne pyranometer to those computed from aerosol properties. Another technique combined airborne measurements of aerosol scattering and absorption by nephelometer and absorption photometer. A third technique obtained SSA from best-fit complex refractive indices derived by comparing vertical profiles of lidar backscatter, sunphotometer extinction, and relative size distribution. In ACE 2 midvisible SSA was determined both as a best-fit parameter in comparing measured and calculated flux changes at the surface and by combining nephelometer and absorption photometer measurements. The nephelometer/absorption-photometer results were obtained on the ACE 2 ship (10 m asl), at the Sagres, Portugal site at 50 m asl, and also on the Pelican aircraft. This paper presents and compares the TARFOX and ACE 2 SSA results from the above techniques for different situations (e.g., marine vs continental flows, "clean" vs polluted conditions). It also discusses the strengths and limitations of the techniques, including whether they describe the aerosol in its ambient state or as perturbed by sampling processes; whether they describe the aerosol at the surface, as a function of altitude, or integrated over a column; the ease of acquiring representative data sets; results obtained in tests of consistency with radiative flux changes, and the likelihood of various artifacts and errors.

Russell, P. B.↗

NASA NTRS1999

A Survey of Collective Intelligence

This chapter presents the science of "COllective INtelligence" (COIN). A COIN is a large multi-agent systems where: i) the agents each run reinforcement learning (RL) algorithms; ii) there is little to no centralized communication or control; iii) there is a provided world utility function that, rates the possible histories of tile full system. Tile conventional approach to designing large distributed systems to optimize a world utility does not use agents running RL algorithms. Rather that approach begins with explicit modeling of the overall system's dynamics, followed by detailed hand-tuning of the interactions between the components to ensure that they "cooperate" as far as the world utility is concerned. This approach is labor-intensive, often results in highly non-robust systems, and usually results in design techniques that, have limited applicability. In contrast, with COINs we wish to solve the system design problems implicitly, via the 'adaptive' character of the RL algorithms of each of the agents. This COIN approach introduces an entirely new, profound design problem: Assuming the RL algorithms are able to achieve high rewards, what reward functions for the individual agents will, when pursued by those agents, result in high world utility? In other words, what reward functions will best ensure that we do not have phenomena like the tragedy of the commons, or Braess's paradox? Although still very young, the science of COINs has already resulted in successes in artificial domains, in particular in packet-routing, the leader-follower problem, and in variants of Arthur's "El Farol bar problem". It is expected that as it matures not only will COIN science expand greatly the range of tasks addressable by human engineers, but it will also provide much insight into already established scientific fields, such as economics, game theory, or population biology.

Wolpert, David H.↗

NASA NTRS2019

Application of Machine Learning Techniques to Delay Tolerant Network Routing

This dissertation discusses several machine learning techniques to improve routing in delay tolerant networks (DTNs). These are networks in which there may be long one-way trip times, asymmetric links, high error rates, and deterministic as well as non-deterministic loss of contact between network nodes, such as interplanetary satellite networks, mobile ad hoc networks and wireless sensor networks. This work uses historical network statistics to train a multi-label classifier to predict reliable paths through the network. In addition, a clustering technique is used to predict future mobile node locations. Both of these techniques are used to reduce the consumption of resources such as network bandwidth, memory and data storage that is required by replication routing methods often used in opportunistic DTN environments. Thesis contributions include: an emulation tool chain developed to create a DTN test bed for machine learning, the network and software architecture for a machine learning based routing method, the development and implementation of classification and clustering techniques and performance evaluation in terms of machine learning and routing metrics.

Dudukovich, Rachel M.↗

NASA NTRS2012

VIIRS On-Orbit Optical Anomaly - Investigation, Analysis, Root Cause Determination and Lessons Learned

A gradual, but persistent, decrease in the optical throughput was detected during the early commissioning phase for the Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership (SNPP) Visible Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) Near Infrared (NIR) bands. Its initial rate and unknown cause were coincidently coupled with a decrease in sensitivity in the same spectral wavelength of the Solar Diffuser Stability Monitor (SDSM) raising concerns about contamination or the possibility of a system-level satellite problem. An anomaly team was formed to investigate and provide recommendations before commissioning could resume. With few hard facts in hand, there was much speculation about possible causes and consequences of the degradation. Two different causes were determined as will be explained in this paper. This paper will describe the build and test history of VIIRS, why there were no indicators, even with hindsight, of an on-orbit problem, the appearance of the on-orbit anomaly, the initial work attempting to understand and determine the cause, the discovery of the root cause and what Test-As-You-Fly (TAYF) activities, can be done in the future to greatly reduce the likelihood of similar optical anomalies. These TAYF activities are captured in the lessons learned section of this paper.

Iona, Glenn↗

NASA NTRS2012

Human Systems Integration in Practice: Constellation Lessons Learned

NASA's Constellation program provided a unique testbed for Human Systems Integration (HSI) as a fundamental element of the Systems Engineering process. Constellation was the first major program to have HSI mandated by NASA's Human Rating document. Proper HSI is critical to the success of any project that relies on humans to function as operators, maintainers, or controllers of a system. HSI improves mission, system and human performance, significantly reduces lifecycle costs, lowers risk and minimizes re-design. Successful HSI begins with sufficient project schedule dedicated to the generation of human systems requirements, but is by no means solely a requirements management process. A top-down systems engineering process that recognizes throughout the organization, human factors as a technical discipline equal to traditional engineering disciplines with authority for the overall system. This partners with a bottoms-up mechanism for human-centered design and technical issue resolution. The Constellation Human Systems Integration Group (HSIG) was a part of the Systems Engineering and Integration (SE&I) organization within the program office, and existed alongside similar groups such as Flight Performance, Environments & Constraints, and Integrated Loads, Structures and Mechanisms. While the HSIG successfully managed, via influence leadership, a down-and-in Community of Practice to facilitate technical integration and issue resolution, it lacked parallel top-down authority to drive integrated design. This presentation will discuss how HSI was applied to Constellation, the lessons learned and best practices it revealed, and recommendations to future NASA program and project managers. This presentation will discuss how Human Systems Integration (HSI) was applied to NASA's Constellation program, the lessons learned and best practices it revealed, and recommendations to future NASA program and project managers on how to accomplish this critical function.

Zumbado, Jennifer Rochlis↗

NASA NTRS1999

Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite (SWAS) Launch and Early Orbit Support Experiences

The Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite (SWAS) was successfully launched on December 6, 1998 at 00:58 UTC. The two year mission is the fourth in the series of Small Explorer (SMEX) missions. SWAS is dedicated to the study of star formation and interstellar chemistry. SWAS was injected into a 635 km by 650 km orbit with an inclination of nearly 70 deg by an Orbital Sciences Corporation Pegasus XL launch vehicle. The Flight Dynamics attitude and navigation teams supported all phases of the early mission. This support included orbit determination, attitude determination, real-time monitoring, and sensor calibration. This paper reports the main results and lessons learned concerning navigation, support software, star tracker performance, magnetometer and gyroscope calibrations, and anomaly resolution. This includes information on spacecraft tip-off rates, first-day navigation problems, target acquisition anomalies, star tracker anomalies, and significant sensor improvements due to calibration efforts.

Kirschner, S.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite (SWAS) Launch and Early Orbit Support Experiences

Kirschner, S.↗

NASA NTRS2015

Orion Launch Abort System Performance During Exploration Flight Test 1

The Orion Launch Abort System Office is taking part in flight testing to enable certification that the system is capable of delivering the astronauts aboard the Orion Crew Module to a safe environment during both nominal and abort conditions. Orion is a NASA program, Exploration Flight Test 1 is managed and led by the Orion prime contractor, Lockheed Martin, and launched on a United Launch Alliance Delta IV Heavy rocket. Although the Launch Abort System Office has tested the critical systems to the Launch Abort System jettison event on the ground, the launch environment cannot be replicated completely on Earth. During Exploration Flight Test 1, the Launch Abort System was to verify the function of the jettison motor to separate the Launch Abort System from the crew module so it can continue on with the mission. Exploration Flight Test 1 was successfully flown on December 5, 2014 from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's Space Launch Complex 37. This was the first flight test of the Launch Abort System preforming Orion nominal flight mission critical objectives. The abort motor and attitude control motors were inert for Exploration Flight Test 1, since the mission did not require abort capabilities. Exploration Flight Test 1 provides critical data that enable engineering to improve Orion's design and reduce risk for the astronauts it will protect as NASA continues to move forward on its human journey to Mars. The Exploration Flight Test 1 separation event occurred at six minutes and twenty seconds after liftoff. The separation of the Launch Abort System jettison occurs once Orion is safely through the most dynamic portion of the launch. This paper will present a brief overview of the objectives of the Launch Abort System during a nominal Orion flight. Secondly, the paper will present the performance of the Launch Abort System at it fulfilled those objectives. The lessons learned from Exploration Flight Test 1 and the other Flight Test Vehicles will certainly contribute to the vehicle architecture of a human-rated space launch vehicle.

McCauley, Rachel↗