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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 145 records · Page 8
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS2008

A Theoretical Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Model for Systems Controls and Stability Design

As the aviation industry moves toward higher efficiency electrical power generation, all electric aircraft, or zero emissions and more quiet aircraft, fuel cells are sought as the technology that can deliver on these high expectations. The hybrid solid oxide fuel cell system combines the fuel cell with a micro-turbine to obtain up to 70% cycle efficiency, and then distributes the electrical power to the loads via a power distribution system. The challenge is to understand the dynamics of this complex multidiscipline system and the design distributed controls that take the system through its operating conditions in a stable and safe manner while maintaining the system performance. This particular system is a power generation and a distribution system, and the fuel cell and micro-turbine model fidelity should be compatible with the dynamics of the power distribution system in order to allow proper stability and distributed controls design. The novelty in this paper is that, first, the case is made why a high fidelity fuel cell mode is needed for systems control and stability designs. Second, a novel modeling approach is proposed for the fuel cell that will allow the fuel cell and the power system to be integrated and designed for stability, distributed controls, and other interface specifications. This investigation shows that for the fuel cell, the voltage characteristic should be modeled but in addition, conservation equation dynamics, ion diffusion, charge transfer kinetics, and the electron flow inherent impedance should also be included.

Kopasakis, George↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Acoustic Flight Test of the Joby Aviation Advanced Air Mobility Prototype Vehicle

An extensive acoustic flight test was performed on the Joby Aviation pre-production all-electric vertical takeoff and landing prototype. With the design intent of carrying a pilot and four passengers a maximum range of 150 miles, this vehicle utilizes distributed propulsion and vectored thrust via six tilting propellers. As part of the Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) National Campaign, this is the first full-scale AAM aircraft tested by NASA over representative conditions for all phases of a typical mission profile. A 58- channel distributed microphone array was used to acquire acoustic measurements on more than 100 test points (31 unique conditions). The measurements were postprocessed with synchronously sampled vehicle position and state data to form ground noise contours of departures and approaches at various flight path angles and accelerations. Comparing ground areas of 75 dBA isolines, approaches consistently exhibit higher noise levels rela- tive to departures. Directivity maps were generated for constant airspeed level flyovers. Examples comparing the differences in a semi-thrust borne and full wing-borne mode are given, with full wing-borne mode representing the quietest phase of the flight envelope tested. Measurements for hover in and out of ground effect are given and found to have 2 to 5 dB variation over a single run, and more significant variation between back-to-back runs. Finally, initial analysis of acoustic symmetry about the longitudinal vehicle axis and repeatability over several test days are presented.

Acoustics↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

NASA Ground Testing Contributions to Electrified Aircraft Propulsion

This presentation presents an overview of the NASA's Advanced Air Transport Technology investments in electrified aircraft propulsion. The content focuses on machines, drives, fault, power and thermal management and provides a brief status update of in-house and contracted work in these areas. This content is part of a panel for the Electric Aircraft Technologies Symposium (EATS) at Aviation 2023 and will show how current technologies being worked on can be informed by the flight demonstrators and serve as a bridge to future flight work as well as eventual entry into service.

electrified aircraft↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Corridor Design and Analysis for UAM Operations

The Urban Air Mobility (UAM) concept is a part of Advanced Air Mobility (AAM), a joint initiative between the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), NASA, and industry to develop an air transportation system that uses new electric (i.e., green) air vehicles in geographical areas previously underserved by traditional aviation. Market forecast studies predict that there will be demand for alternate modes of air transportation using electric Vertical Take-off and Landing aircraft. UAM expands transportation networks by introducing short flights to move people and goods around metropolitan areas​. UAM is expected to improve mobility for the public, decongest road traffic, reduce trip time, and decrease strain on existing public transportation networks. Various challenges exist to make the introduction of UAM operations successful in the U.S. National Airspace System (NAS). These include but are not limited to integration with existing airports and airspace, provision of air traffic services (e.g., separation), vehicle design and certification, and community acceptance. The focus of this paper is on integration of UAM operations into the NAS via introduction of new airspace structures. UAM will operate within a regulatory, operational, and technical environment that is incorporated into the NAS​. As per the UAM Concept of Operations (ConOps), the FAA retains regulatory authority and is responsible for establishing operational parameters and maintaining oversight. The FAA’s UAM ConOps describes flights at low altitudes (below 5,000 ft) with minimal disruption to established conventional aircraft traffic and limited voice interactions with the Air Traffic Control (ATC). Early stages of UAM may use existing procedures to safely integrate UAM with conventional flights. This would involve flying under Part 91 Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and using voice for communications. The initial UAM ecosystem will utilize the current infrastructure such as routes, helipads, and ATC services, where practicable. ​A NASA study explored the use of existing helicopter routes in Dallas Fort Worth (DFW) airspace for initial UAM operations with a Letter of Agreement (LOA) that included procedures to request a Class B (controlled airspace) clearance. The research showed that the chosen approach was feasible for near-term, low-demand UAM traffic, but was not scalable. The growth of operations in today’s aviation system has resulted in airspace reorganization and procedures to ensure safety and efficiency as traffic rates increase. One proposed operating innovation that can help with the scalability of UAM is establishing routes and corridors. This may look similar to the Area Navigation (RNAV) procedures used today to streamline operations into busy airports. However, instead of FAA automation systems and ATC managing the flow of traffic, some UAM concepts envision a third-party service provider performing this role as part of the Provider of Services for UAM (PSU) network. The FAA’s UAM ConOps posits that new airspace structures such as UAM corridors include the following design criteria: 1) Minimal impact on existing NAS operations, 2) no or minimal additional ATC services, 3) public interest considerations such as noise, safety, and security, and 4) customer needs. The airspace available in urban environments is limited by the height of buildings, the effect of weather including wind gusts, privacy needs, and a clearance envelope. The new airspace structure would need to be designed around large airports and urban areas where the initial market demand is likely to exist. NASA has started evaluating airspace in the Dallas Fort Worth area to design new airspace structures, keeping the first two design criteria in mind. It is assumed that there will be an on-board pilot-in-command, and the flights will operate under VFR in Visual Meteorological Conditions. Corridors will be required in controlled airspace, whereas UAM operations can fly in uncontrolled Class G and E airspace using current day rules. Keeler et. al identified factors and heuristics for development of routes for UAM operations for integration with airspace close to large airports such as Dallas Fort Worth and Dallas Love Field. This paper describes the heuristics applied to define the corridors, analyzes them with respect to legacy traffic and presents key results.

Urban Air Mobility↗
NASA NTRS2003

Electrical Systems Analysis at NASA Glenn Research Center: Status and Prospects

An analysis of an electrical power and propulsion system for a 2-place general aviation aircraft is presented to provide a status of such modeling at NASA Glenn Research Center. The thermodynamic/ electrical model and mass prediction tools are described and the resulting system power and mass are shown. Three technology levels are used to predict the effect of advancements in component technology. Methods of fuel storage are compared by mass and volume. Prospects for future model development and validation at NASA as well as possible applications are also summarized.

Freeh, Joshua E.↗
NASA NTRS2020

Electrical Cable Design for Urban Air Mobility Aircraft

Urban Air Mobility (UAM) describes a new type of aviation focused on efficient flight within urban areas for moving people and goods. There are many different configurations of UAM vehicles, but they generally use an electric motor driving a propeller or ducted fan powered by batteries or a hybrid electric power generation system. Transmission cables are used to move energy from the storage or generation system to the electric motors. Though terrestrial power transmission cables are well established technology, aviation applications bring a whole host of new design challenges that are not typical considerations in terrestrial applications. Aircraft power transmission cable designs must compromise between resistance-per-length, weight-per-length, volume constraints, and other essential qualities. In this paper we use a multidisciplinary design optimization to explore the sensitivity of these qualities to a representative tiltwing turboelectric UAM aircraft concept. This is performed by coupling propulsion and thermal models for a given mission criteria. Results presented indicate that decreasing cable weight at the expense of increasing cable volume or cooling demand is effective at minimizing maximum takeoff weight (MTO). These findings indicate that subsystem designers should update their modeling approach in order to contribute to system-level optimality for highly-coupled novel aircraft. Mobility (UAM) vehicles have the potential to change urban and intra-urban transport in new and interesting ways. In a series of two papers Johnson et al.1 and Silva et al.2 presented four reference vehicle configurations that could service different niches in the UAM aviation category. Of those, this paper focuses on the Vertical Take-off and Landing (VTOL) tiltwing configuration shown in Figure 1. This configuration uses a turboelectric power system, feeding power from a turbo-generator through a system of transmission cables to four motors spinning large propellers on the wings. Previous work on electric cable subsystems leaves much yet to be explored, especially in the realm of subsystem coupling. Several aircraft optimization studies1, 3, 4 only considered aircraft electrical cable weight and ignored thermal effects. Electric and hybrid-electric aircraft studies by Mueller et al.5 and Hoelzen et al.6 selected a cable material but did not investigate alternative materials. Advanced cable materials have been examined by a number of authors: Alvarenga7 examined carbon nanotube (CNT) conductors for low-power applications. De Groh8, 9 examined CNT conductors for motor winding applications. Behabtu et al.,10 and Zhao et al.11 examined CNT conductors for a general applications. There were some studies that examined the thermal effects of cables but they did not allow the cable material to change; El-Kady12 optimized ground-cable insulation and cooling subject constraints. Vratny13 selected cable material based on vehicle power demand, and required resulting cable heat to be dissipated by the Thermal Management System (TMS). None of these previous studies allowed for the selection of the cable material based on a system level optimization goal. Instead, they focused on sub-system optimality such as minimum weight, which comes at the expense of incurring additional costs for other subsystems. Dama14 selected overhead transmission line materials using a weighting function and thermal constraints. However, that work was not coupled with any aircraft subsystems like a TMS. The traditional aircraft design approach, which relies on assembling groups of optimal subsystems, breaks down when considering novel aircraft concepts like the tiltwing vehicle. In a large part, this is because novel concepts have a much higher degree of interaction or coupling between subsystems. For example, when a cable creates heat, this heat needs to be dissipated by the TMS, which needs power supplied by the turbine, and delivering the power creates more heat. The cable, the TMS, and the turbine are all coupled. A change to one subsystem will affect all the other subsystems, much to the consternation of subsystem design experts. Multidisciplinary optimization is the design approach that can address these challenges. However, to fully take advantage of this, we must change the way we think about subsystem design. Specifically, we must move away from point design, and focus on creating solution spaces. The work presented in this paper uses the multidisciplinary optimization approach with aircraft level models to study the system-level sensitivity of cable traits: weight-per-length and resistance-per-length. Additionally, we examined the effects of vehicle imposed volume constraints on these traits. This is useful for three purposes: (1) to demonstrate a framework that can perform a coupled analysis between the aircraft thermal and propulsion systems, (2) to provide a method by which future cable designs can be evaluated against each other given a system-level design goal, (3) to provide insight into what cable properties may be promising for future research. This last element is explored given the caveat that the models contained in this analysis do not represent high-fidelity systems. Thus, while we can demonstrate coupling in between systems, the exact system-level sensitivity to a given parameter may change if a subsystem model or the assumptions governing that model change. The organization of this paper is as follows, in Sec II we outline a method to combine the VTOL vehicle design and cable information in order to produce cables sensitivity studies. Results analysis and discussion are contained in Sec III. Conclusions are presented in Sec IV.

Aretskin-Hariton, Eliot D.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Hybrid Electric Turboprop Commercial Freighter (HETCOF) Market Study

The dedicated air cargo and freight market has the potential to be a critical early pathway for emerging technologies in low to zero emission propulsion. This study analyzes the cargo aviation market to understand current market trends and future market viability of a mid-sized all-electric or hybrid-electric concept aircraft. While cargo aviation’s overall emissions footprint is small relative to commercial passenger aviation, it remains an important and challenging transportation sector to decarbonize. Past research has focused on small, less than 19-seat electrified aircraft propulsion concepts that could serve both passenger and air cargo markets. This study extends the electrified market space into larger aircraft classes, considering if a purpose-built large hybrid electric turboprop freighter can compete in the market currently served primarily by conversion narrowbody freighters. Specifically, this paper focuses on the mid-sized cargo market with payload ranges of 40,000-50,000lbs, and an all-electric range potential up to 750 miles. The concept aircraft is based on a 4-engine turboprop configuration, with wing mounted battery packs and an aft cargo door to allow for standardized palletization. The market analysis indicates broad market coverage with 73% of the existing mid-sized cargo network within the range of 750 miles. A breakeven analysis of operating and capital costs shows potential for market competition; however, this would require additional energy and acquisition cost savings from the concept aircraft. Evidence from the breakeven analysis also points to higher rates of aircraft utilization being a critical path to lowering costs and increasing cost effectiveness.

Hybrid Electric↗
NASA NTRS1980

An assessment of the risk arising from electrical effects associated with carbon fibers released from commercial aircraft fires

The risks associated with electrical effects arising from carbon fibers released from commercial aviation aircraft fires were estimated for 1993. The expected annual losses were estimated to be about $470 (1977 dollars) in 1993. The chances of total losses from electrical effects exceeding $100,000 (1977 dollars) in 1993 were established to be about one in ten thousand.

Kalelkar, A. S.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Electrifying Aircraft Propulsion: Thermal Issues of Megawatt Scale Power Dense Electric Machines and Material Solutions

Aircraft are the last major mode of transportation to undergo electrification for many reasons, where the underlying reason is the sensitivity of aircraft performance to mass. This sensitivity demands that efficient, megawatt (MW)-scale high specific power density powertrains be developed to impact regional, single aisle and larger aircraft that account for the majority of fuel burn in commercial aviation. Developing MW-scale high specific power electric powertrains (machines, cables/busbars and power electronics) remains a significant challenge. While advanced power semiconductors have enabled higher voltages, densities, and operational frequencies this also leads to passing high current through smaller volumes when considering electric machines and power electronics. This poses significant thermal challenges. This is particularly true for electric machines that strive to surpass 13 kW/kg, which studies have shown to be desirable for electric aircraft propulsion. The necessity of handling high current densities to achieve MW power levels dictates that greater than 10kW of waste heat will be generated. Moreover, most of the heat is generated in the stator winding which is a mixture of electrical conductor (copper or aluminum), potting material, magnet wire (electrical) insulation and high voltage electrical insulation. Although the electrical conductor is a fantastic thermal conductor, it is also the source of the heat (carrying the electrical current) and is thermally isolated by the other materials. Simply letting the machine run at increased temperatures is an attractive idea, however the reality is that most of the suitable electric insulations and potting material candidates are not likely to satisfactorily operate at higher temperatures with reasonable life expectancies. The likelihood of developing new polymers that can satisfy the necessary functions (mechanical and electrical), operate at higher temperatures with acceptable lifetime in the near term is small. This has led the researchers at the NASA Glenn Research Center to examine electrically insulative materials in high power destiny electric machines, their thermal environment, and what solutions are realistic from a materials point of view. This presentation will touch on both the thermal challenges of electric machines and NASA Glenn’s research into material solutions.

Electric Aircraft Propulsion↗
NASA NTRS2020

Hybrid Electric MC-12 Ground Testing Plan Chapter

In the commercial aviation world, hybrid/electric propulsion is a promising technology for fuel, emissions, and noise reduction in support of the challenging goals established by 2050 EU Flightpath/SRIA, NASA ARMD Strategic Implementation Plan, and the US Air Force ATTAM programs. Ongoing results indicate operational benefits are possible in those three technical areas. Considering military applications, hybrid/electric propulsion may yield further significant improvements by enabling new, unorthodox mission capabilities. Potential benefits are expected in the areas of vehicle signature reduction (lower noise, lower exhaust signature), usage in enhanced flight environments, minimized human-in-the-loop workload by offering a platform compatible with future goals of autonomous operations facilitation, maintenance cost reductions, and performance burst/dash energy. Additional synergies are likely when used in conjunction with energy weapons. Some potential areas of mutual interest could include, dusty operations capability, remote supply capability, extended surveillance, dispatch able power, fuel-flexible vehicles, and autonomous rescue equipment. Many of the key technologies that have been demonstrated in ground operation must now be qualified for altitude conditions. We expect to have many flight qualified powertrain systems over the next decade for military planners to choose from for new future battlefield capability. This requires new flight-weight and flight-efficient powertrain components, fault tolerant power management, and electromagnetic interference mitigation technologies. Moreover, initial studies indicate some combination of ambient and cryogenic thermal management and relatively high bus voltages when compared to state of practice will be required to achieve a net system benefit. Developing all these powertrain technologies within a realistic aircraft architectural geometry and under realistic operational conditions requires a unique electric aircraft test bed. The MC-12 surveillance aircraft is an ideal military aircraft for demonstrating some of the benefits of incorporating hybrid electric propulsion. This report details an approach for full-scale ground-based altitude testing the hybrid electric MC-12 powertrain through a full flight profile.

military electric aircraft propulsion↗
NASA NTRS2021

Development and Characterization of Lightweight Durable Composite Conductor for Cables

Sustainable aviation in the form of electrified propulsion is likely to lead to an increase in the electrical assets contained within a single aircraft. As a result, it is desirable to design light weight conductor materials, thus reducing the payload of components like motor windings, low voltage signal cables, and transmission cables for data and power. One approach involves replacing pure Cu wiring with metalized CNT composites. This paper evaluates a framework for modeling overall conductivity and current sharing within such composites. Processing methods and parameters were refined. Select electroplated samples outperformed pure Cu in conductivity and had comparable ultimate tensile strengths. Tensile strengths are expected to improve with an additional densification step during processing. Acoustic emission data was used to predict the failure mechanism of the composite. Theories explaining improved intrinsic conductivity are discussed, with a focus on chemical and mechanical interactions at the Cu-CNT interface. These include Cu infiltration of CNT crevices, CNT oxidation, activity at defects in CNT walls, and the release of carbide-forming metals from CNT walls. Validating any or all these theories will require further work replicating data, collecting electron micrographs and conducting chemical analyses.

Metalized CNT↗
NASA NTRS2008

Testing HyDE on ADAPT

The IVHM Project in the Aviation Safety Program has funded research in electrical power system (EPS) health management. This problem domain contains both discrete and continuous behavior, and thus is directly relevant for the hybrid diagnostic tool HyDE. In FY2007 work was performed to expand the HyDE diagnosis model of the ADAPT system. The work completed resulted in a HyDE model with the capability to diagnose five times the number of ADAPT components previously tested. The expanded diagnosis model passed a corresponding set of new ADAPT fault injection scenario tests with no incorrect faults reported. The time required for the HyDE diagnostic system to isolate the fault varied widely between tests; this variance was reduced by tuning HyDE input parameters. These results and other diagnostic design trade-offs are discussed. Finally, possible future improvements for both the HyDE diagnostic model and HyDE itself are presented.

Sweet, Adam↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Demonstrations: A Path to the Future of Aviation

These slides were given as part of Panel 7: “Electric Flight Demonstrations: Test Results, Upcoming Tests, and Certification” a part of iTEC+EATS 2026 held in Novi MI. The presentation represents NASA’s recent and current investments in demonstrating megawatt and multi-megawatt electrified aircraft propulsion

demonstrator↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Acoustic Testing of the Joby Aviation Propeller in the National Full-Scale Aerodynamics Complex 40- by 80-Foot Wind Tunnel

The advanced air mobility sector has progressed in recent years with electric vertical take-Off and landing vehicles at the forefront. In response, the NASA Advanced Air Mobility Project has initiated the Advanced Air Mobility National Campaign to partner with industry to progress this emerging market. This resulted in NASA’s Revolutionary Vertical Lift Technology project to participate to progress research efforts for software tool validation for these advanced air mobility vehicle configurations. Noise has been identified as one of the main obstacles to succeeding in this emerging market for community acceptance. To further understand electric vertical take-Off and landing vehicle noise, an isolated Joby Aviation S4 propeller was tested in the National Full-Scale Aerodynamics Complex 40- by 80-Foot Wind Tunnel to aid in providing high quality performance, loads, and acoustic data. Details of test hardware and setup are described with a focus on acoustics, which includes facility, test model, microphone locations, and data acquisition system details. Additionally, the data processing techniques and completed test matrix for acoustic points are provided. To aid in identifying potential acoustic reflections, an acoustic reflection test was performed prior to the start of the test and highlighted the presence of reflections at every microphone location. Acoustic results are provided for various flight regimes for sweeps of blade pitch, RPM, flow angle, and wind speed. These results show an optimum RPM for a specific thrust level for noise, and further reductions in RPM can increase noise levels. This dataset will be used to evaluate and improve computational tools.

Aviation Propeller↗
DOE OSTI2022

Building a Sustainable Aviation Brain Trust: Key Insights From the 2022 NREL Partner Forum

Cross-sector collaboration is key for guiding the large, complex aviation industry over the emissions peak and quickly down the slope to net-zero - that theme was repeated regularly during the two-day 2022 NREL Partner Forum. With an expanding global economy, more people than ever want the convenience of air travel. That has made aviation the fastest-growing transportation sector, as well as a rising source of carbon emissions. How can the industry serve its customers while charting a course to net-zero in line with climate goals? Interest and momentum from public and private sectors are mounting to answer that question, a backdrop for the Partner Forum. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) brought 200 attendees to the whiteboard to find common goals, align interests, understand technologies, and discuss steps for safely and seamlessly decarbonizing aviation. This document captures the tenor of the conversations and provides a summary of the 1.5 day event for those who were not able to attend or who have interest in this area.

aircraft↗
DOE OSTI2026

What Is the Best Use of Biomass? A Harmonized LCA-TEA Framework Quantifying Economic and Environmental Metrics for Bioenergy Pathways

Bioresource utilization is expected to play a pivotal role in complementing existing energy pathways and enhancing energy resilience. This study develops a harmonized life cycle assessment (LCA) and techno-economic analysis (TEA) framework to evaluate the greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction potential, minimum fuel selling price (MFSP), and marginal abatement cost (MAC) of bioenergy pathways. We analyze 19 pathways, including liquid biofuels (via catalytic fast pyrolysis, Fischer–Tropsch synthesis, and gasification), bioelectricity, and biomass-to-hydrogen, with and without carbon capture and storage (CCS). The GHG impacts are assessed using the GREET 2022 model, while U.S. Billion-Ton 2016 biomass availability projections are used to estimate scale-up potential. Additionally, we evaluate the influence of a low-carbon electricity grid on pathway performance. Our results show that CCS implementation reduces carbon intensities (CI) to net-negative values for several pathways, with MAC ranging from $\$$32 to $\$$600 per metric ton (MT) CO2e avoided. Bioelectricity pathways with CCS achieve the lowest MAC ($\$$32–$\$$68/tCO2e), while liquid biofuels and hydrogen pathways remain critical for hard-to-abate sectors like aviation and heavy industry. Pathways with net-positive electricity demand benefit from a low-carbon grid, whereas those co-producing electricity experience increased MAC under lower electricity grid CI scenarios. This open-source framework provides a robust tool for harmonized evaluation of bioenergy pathways, enabling policymakers and stakeholders to identify cost-effective strategies for biomass utilization and carbon abatement at scale. The findings underscore the importance of CCS, co-product credits, and feedstock availability in optimizing bioenergy deployment for a low-carbon economy.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
NASA NTRS2017

Simulink(Trademark) Controller for a Reluctance Motor With a Four-Pole Rotor and 36-Tooth Stator

NASA Glenn Research Center has developed a Simulink(Trademark) controller logic for driving a room temperature, 36-teeth stator, four-pole rotor reluctance motor. The Simulink logic was extracted from an existing C++ motor controller that was previously employed to achieve a rotor speed of 3000 rpm. The Simulink controller has additional logic refinements that were not available in past C++ controller, such as the per rev logic component and its frequency filter. The filter provides a more accurate reading of the rotor input signals. The controller is versatile, and with slight modifications, can be used to drive other reluctance motor types incorporating dissimilar stator rotor pole combinations. The original C++ controller was designed with the goal (after appropriate modification) of controlling a future superconducting motor. This superconducting motor will be employed as a test bed for developing other superconducting aviation propulsion motors envisioned for future turbo-electric aircrafts. The Simulink results presented in this paper were generated from simulated rotor inputs. However, in an actual application, these simulated inputs are to be replaced by actual proximity probe signals emanating from D-Space hardware inputs.

Motor Controller↗