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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2018

Regulating Operational Safety at a Future Geological Disposal Facility in the UK - 18038

The United Kingdom (UK) has generated commercial nuclear energy for over 60 years; generating a significant and varied inventory of higher activity radioactive waste (HAW). In accordance with international practice, UK Government policy for long-term management of HAW is disposal in a geological disposal facility (GDF). The nuclear materials comprising HAW include high level waste, intermediate level waste and some low level waste, not suitable for disposal to the Low Level Waste Repository. In addition, other nuclear materials may be reclassified as waste in the future and will require to be managed as HAW for disposal to a GDF; these include spent fuel, uranium and plutonium. The operator of a GDF will be required to obtain a nuclear site licence from the Office for Nuclear Regulation (ONR), as the nuclear safety and security regulator, in order to construct and operate the facility. In the period prior to submission of a licence application, ONR is working to develop its regulatory expectations and provide advice on its regulatory role with regards to a future GDF. ONR has developed regulatory guidance on operational safety, benchmarked against the relevant IAEA Safety Standards and the Western European Nuclear Regulators Association (WENRA) Safety Reference Levels for Disposal. This guidance draws upon ONR's current expectations for nuclear sites; including operational reactors, fuel manufacture and reprocessing facilities, and reactors undergoing decommissioning; and incorporates relevant good practice drawn from international programmes for geological disposal and related industries (eg mining). In addition to the technical assessment guidance, ONR has developed guidance on the licensing process specific to a GDF; providing clarity for example on when a licence will be required. A review of the standard licence conditions applied to all nuclear sites concluded no significant amendment would be required for application to a GDF. Through its voluntary agreement with Radioactive Waste Management Limited (RWM), the developer and future operator of a GDF in the UK, ONR exerts regulatory influence on the design and organisational development of the future licensee. As part of this scrutiny, ONR has assessed RWM's generic Disposal System Safety Case. Subjecting the generic design and safety case to regulatory review provides opportunity for early engagement to ensure the appropriate standards will be achieved. ONR will only grant the necessary regulatory permissions if RWM adequately demonstrates the GDF will be constructed, operated and closed safely. Future challenges faced by ONR with respect to a GDF include building and maintaining regulatory competence and confidence, and engaging effectively with the public as the UK begins its search for a suitable site to provide appropriate assurance that a GDF will be operated safely and securely. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2016

Report on the Sixth International Symposium on Isotopomers

The ISI 2012 met in Washington, DC, 18-22 June 2012, bringing together researchers and their students spanning an unusually wide range of disciplines including quantum and physical chemistry, cosmochemistry, atmospheric chemistry, chemical oceanography, biogeochemistry, organic and inorganic geochemistry. The diversity of subject matter was matched geographically with 92 attendees hailing from Canada, China, Finland, France, Germany, India, Israel, Japan, the Netherlands, Russia, Switzerland, Taiwan, the United Kingdom, and the USA. Although diverse, the group was united in its commitment to use the light stable isotopes of H, C, N, O, and S, with their equilibrium, kinetic, and intramolecular fractionations, to understand the material cycles and their dynamics between atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere that make life possible on Earth. A distinct benefit of a small meeting like ISI 2012 is the opportunity for everyone to talk to each other. The historic rooms of the Carnegie Institution of Washington offered a cozy and warm atmosphere for participants in ISI 2012 to talk science and life in a casual, relaxed, and in-depth fashion. Graduate students and postdoctoral researchers were particularly appreciative of being able to spend five days together with old and new colleagues in comfortable quarters. Many commented that they had gained a lot more in building their life-long working relationships with colleagues at this meeting than at larger meetings.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2021

Physical Sciences Vistas: Issue 4 2021

In this issue of Physical Sciences Vistas we highlight examples of “excellence in nuclear security.” In this issue, highlights of our outstanding work supporting the Laboratory’s nuclear security enterprise include the following: The complete refurbishment of Sigma’s surface finishing lab. Pride in the lab’s revitalized condition on the part of the operations and R&D staff responsible for this complex operation is well justified. Development of advanced materials and processes enabling next-generation weapons designs, much of which has been facilitated by projects supported by the Laboratory Directed Research and Development Program. The use of proton radiography in illuminating elements important to validating high explosive burn models. The experimental series was a collaboration between Los Alamos researchers and staff at Lawrence Livermore and Sandia national laboratories and the United Kingdom’s Atomic Weapons Establishment. Deployment of a sophisticated remote handling unit to safely transfer highly radioactive materials required to support mission-critical projects. The skillful swap of an electrical transformer at the Los Alamos Neutron Science Center (LANSCE). The deliberate operation restored power to the accelerator in less than estimated time. A look at George Goff ’s role in translating fundamental science into applied solutions essential to the Lab’s nuclear security mission.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

A higher-order finite-element implementation of the nonlinear Fokker–Planck collision operator for charged particle collisions in a low density plasma

Collisions between particles in a low density plasma are described by the Fokker–Planck collision operator. In applications, this nonlinear integro-differential operator is often approximated by linearised or ad-hoc model operators due to computational cost and complexity. In this work, we present an implementation of the nonlinear Fokker–Planck collision operator written in terms of Rosenbluth potentials in the Rosenbluth–MacDonald–Judd (RMJ) form. The Rosenbluth potentials may be obtained either by direct integration or by solving partial differential equations (PDEs) similar to Poisson's equation: we optimise for performance and scalability by using sparse matrices to solve the relevant PDEs. We represent the distribution function using a tensor-product continuous-Galerkin finite-element representation and we derive and describe the implementation of the weak form of the collision operator. We present tests demonstrating a successful implementation using an explicit time integrator and we comment on the speed and accuracy of the operator. Finally, we speculate on the potential for applications in the current and next generation of kinetic plasma models.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
NASA NTRS1994

WTEC panel report on research submersibles and undersea technologies

This report covers research submersibles and related subsea technologies in Finland, France, Russia, Ukraine and the United Kingdom. Manned, teleoperated, and autonomous submersibles were of interest. The panel found that, in contrast to the United States, Europe is making substantial progress in cooperative and coordinated research in subsea technology, including the development of standards. France is a leader in autonomous vehicle technology. Because much less was known a priori about the technologies in Russia and Ukraine, there were more new findings in those countries than in those Western European nations visited. However, Russia and Ukraine have a sizeable (and currently underutilized) infrastructure in this field, including a highly educated and experienced manpower pool, impressive (in some cases unique) facilities for physical testing, extensive fleets of seagoing research vessels capable of long voyages, and state-of-the-art facilities for conducting oceanographic investigations. The panel visited newly-formed commercial companies associated with long-standing submersible R&D and production centers in Russia and Ukraine. So far, these new efforts are undercapitalized, and as such represent opportunities at very low cost for Western nations, as detailed in the site reports.

Seymore, Richard J.↗
DOE OSTI2019

Establishing the World Reference for Measuring the Atmospheric Longwave Irradiance with Traceability to the International System of Units

Advancing climate change research requires accurate and traceable measurement of atmospheric longwave irradiance. Measurement capabilities are limited to an estimated uncertainty of larger than +/- 6 W/m2 using the interim World Infrared Standard Group (WISG). Two independently designed and calibrated absolute radiometers measuring downwelling longwave irradiance were compared during five outdoor comparisons in 2013, 2015, and 2017 at the Physikalisch Meteorologisches Observatorium Davos World Radiation Center (PMOD/WRC) and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Atmospheric Radiation Measurement program (ARM) in the Southern Great Planes (SGP). Two Absolute Cavity Pyrgeometers (ACPs) developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and four Integrating Sphere Infrared Radiometers (IRISs) developed by PMOD/WRC took part in these intercomparisons.From the five comparisons, the difference between the irradiance measured by ACPs and IRISs varied from 0.2 W/m2 to 2.5 W/m2 based on atmospheric conditions, which is within the combined stated uncertainties of +/- 3 W/m2. The irradiance measured by the WISG is lower than the average irradiance measured by ACPs and IRISs. The magnitude of difference varied from 0.2 W/m2 to 6.6 W/m2 depending on the integrated water vapor. A concerted effort to establish a world reference for measuring the atmospheric longwave irradiance with lower uncertainty and with traceability to the International System of Units (SI) by using the ACPs and IRISs as the reference started at the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The Commission for Instruments and Methods of Observation Commission (CIMO) Task Team on Radiation References (TT) meeting was held in 2017 at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), in Teddington, United Kingdom to discuss specific recommendation on the traceability of the atmospheric longwave irradiance to the International System of units (SI).

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2018

Establishing the World Reference for Measuring the Atmospheric Longwave Irradiance with Traceability to the International System of Units

Advancing climate change research requires accurate and traceable measurement of the atmospheric longwave irradiance. Current measurement capabilities are limited to an estimated uncertainty of larger than +/- 6 W/ m2 using the interim World Infrared Standard Group (WISG). Two independently designed and calibrated absolute radiometers measuring downwelling longwave irradiance were compared during five outdoor comparisons in 2013, 2015, and 2017 at the Physikalisch Meteorologisches Observatorium Davos/World Radiation Center (PMOD/WRC) and the USA-DOE Atmospheric Radiation Measurement program (ARM) in the Southern Great Planes (SGP). Two Absolute Cavity Pyrgeometers (ACPs) developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and four Integrating Sphere Infrared Radiometers (IRISs) developed by PMOD/WRC took part in these intercomparisons. From five comparisons, the difference between the irradiance measured by the ACPs and IRISs varied from 0.2 W/ m2 to 2.5 W/ m2 based on the atmospheric conditions, which is within the combined stated uncertainties of +/-3 W/ m2. The irradiance measured by the WISG is lower than the average irradiance measured by ACPs and IRISs, magnitude of the difference varied from 0.2 W/m2 to 6.6 W/ m2 depending on the integrated water vapor. A concerted effort at the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Commission for Instruments and Methods of Observation Commission (CIMO) Task Team on Radiation References (TT) started during a meeting from November 15 to 17, 2017 in the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), Teddington, United Kingdom to establish a world reference for measuring the atmospheric longwave irradiance with lower uncertainty and with traceability to SI units by using the ACPs and IRISs as the reference.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2026

Monte Carlo simulation methodology for characterizing the energy response function and resolving power of a digital Flat Panel Detector (FPD) assembly

The use of high-resolution, digital flat panel detectors (FPDs) makes quantitative assessments of radiographic and 3D tomographic representations feasible. However, the energy response function and spatial resolving power of the detector must be known. Here, we present a methodology for characterizing an FPD assembly using Monte Carlo simulations. The detector assembly modeled here was fielded in the 3-Ring Flash X-ray Imaging System designed and built at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), which employs fifteen Carestream ® HPX-DR3543 FPDs enclosed in protective housings. Detailed Monte Carlo (MCNP6) simulations of an as-fielded detector assembly were performed to estimate its energy response function in terms of analog-to-digital unit (ADU) “counts” per pixel per incident x-ray as a function of energy up to ∼ 500 keV and its theoretical (idealized) resolving power. The practical resolving power of the FPD assembly in a realistic scenario was then estimated by simulating radiographic images of a variant of the United Kingdom (U.K.) “Kaleidoscope” resolution target.

Physics↗
DOE OSTI2014

Accelerating Acceptance of Fuel Cell Backup Power Systems - Final Report

Since 2001, Plug Power has installed more than 800 stationary fuel cell systems worldwide. Plug Power’s prime power systems have produced approximately 6.5 million kilowatt hours of electricity and have accumulated more than 2.5 million operating hours. Intermittent, or backup, power products have been deployed with telecommunications carriers and government and utility customers in North and South America, Europe, the United Kingdom, Japan and South Africa. Some of the largest material handling operations in North America are currently using the company’s motive power units in fuel cell-powered forklifts for their warehouses, distribution centers and manufacturing facilities. The low-temperature GenSys fuel cell system provides remote, off-grid and primary power where grid power is unreliable or nonexistent. Built reliable and designed rugged, low- temperature GenSys delivers continuous or backup power through even the most extreme conditions. Coupled with high-efficiency ratings, low-temperature GenSys reduces operating costs making it an economical solution for prime power requirements. Currently, field trials at telecommunication and industrial sites across the globe are proving the advantages of fuel cells—lower maintenance, fuel costs and emissions, as well as longer life—compared with traditional internal combustion engines.

Petrecky, James↗
DOE OSTI2025

Comparison of Industrialized Late 20th Century Flowsheets for Reprocessing Used Nuclear Fuel

This study identified and compared three flowsheets for reprocessing used nuclear fuel (UNF) industrialized in plants in the United Kingdom (the Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant), France (UP2-800/UP3) and Japan (the Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant). The study also identified the major implications for a plant in the United States if it were initiated. All flowsheets employed the established Plutonium Uranium Reduction Extraction (PUREX) solvent extraction technology to separate uranium and plutonium from UNF dissolved in nitric acid. However, differences in the approaches to managing iodine-129, tritium and technetium were identified in the flowsheets. A US plant would also need to separate krypton-85 as well as iodine-129 and tritium for immobilization and disposal.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2018

Creating a Virtual Utility District: Assessing Quality and Building Energy Impacts of Microclimate Simulations

Buildings in China, India, the United States (US), and United Kingdom (UK) consume 39-45% of each nation's primary energy with fast-growing countries like India projected to use 76% of their primary energy by 2040. In the United States, 73% of all electricity is consumed by buildings. In an effort to better operate electrical grids, needs exist to generate improved load models by better understanding and quantifying weather impacts and microclimate effects on building-specific energy use throughout a city.Scalable methods have been created to allow urban-scale energy modeling – to identify and synthesize a fully-articulated building energy model for every building in an area of interest. This was applied to the 1,385 km2 utility district serviced by the Electric Power Board of Chattanooga, TN. Each building is simulated on the world’s 4th-fastest supercomputer, Titan, using the U.S. Dept. of Energy’s flagship whole-building simulation tool, EnergyPlus, to analyze relationships among climatic conditions, urban morphology, land cover, and energy use. The Weather Research Forecast (WRF) model was scaled on several High Performance Computing (HPC) resources to simulate microclimate variation under different urban morphologies. We analyze the differences between WRF-based microclimate simulations and measured weather station data. This information is then used to quantify impact of microclimate variation and variable-specific meteorological variables on the electrical consumption for individual buildings and show impacts at the scale of a utility district.

New, Joshua↗
NASA NTRS1980

Government financial support for civil aircraft research, technology and development in four European countries and the United States

Data on the levels of government financial support for civil aircraft airframe and engine (CAAE) research and technology (R&T) in the United States and Europe (United Kingdom, West Germany, France and The Netherlands) and means of comparing these levels are provided. Data are presented for the years 1974-1977. European R&T expenditure data were obtained through visits to each of the four European countries, to the Washington office of the European Communities, and by a search of applicable literature. CAAE R&T expenditure data for the United States were obtained from NASA and Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).

Chandler, B.↗
DOE OSTI2024

Key Takeaways: Second Cohort of Action Plans for Rapid Power Sector Decarbonization

A collaborative report from the Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM), Lessons Learned for Rapid Decarbonization of Power Sectors, was delivered to energy ministers and presented at the 13th CEM (CEM13) in the United States in September 2022. As a result, Action Plans for power sector decarbonization were developed by the first cohort of countries. The fist cohort included India, Australia, Chile, the European Union, and the United Kingdom. The first cohort's Action Plans were presented at CEM14 in India in July 2023. These Action Plans, supported by the 21st Century Power Partnership and other CEM workstreams via direct technical assistance and capacity building, are intended to focus on select implementation actions given each country's existing power sector goals and activities, and are an opportunity for countries to display leadership in power sector decarbonization. The second set of Action Plans has been developed by Brazil, Canada, the United States, and Uruguay, released at CEM15 in Brazil in October 2024.

21st Century Power Partnership↗
DOE OSTI2014

Use of Single- versus Multiple-Fraction Palliative Radiation Therapy for Bone Metastases: Population-Based Analysis of 16,898 Courses in a Canadian Province

Purpose: There is abundant evidence that a single fraction (SF) of palliative radiation therapy (RT) for bone metastases is equivalent to more protracted and costly multiple fraction courses. Despite this, there is low utilization of SFRT internationally. We sought to determine the utilization of SFRT in a population-based, publicly funded health care system. Methods and Materials: All consecutive patients with bone metastases treated with RT during 2007 to 2011 in British Columbia (BC) were identified. Associations between utilization of SFRT and patient and provider characteristics were investigated. Results: A total of 16,898 courses of RT were delivered to 8601 patients. SFRT was prescribed 49% of the time. There were positive relationships among SFRT utilization and primary tumor group (P<.001; most commonly in prostate cancer), worse prognosis (P<.001), increasing physician experience (P<.001), site of metastases (P<.001; least for spine metastases), and area of training (P<.001; most commonly for oncologists trained in the United Kingdom). There was wide variation in the prescription of SFRT across 5 regional cancer centers, ranging from 25.5% to 73.4%, which persisted after controlling for other, potentially confounding factors (P<.001). Conclusions: The large variability in SFRT utilization across BC Cancer Agency (BCCA) cancer centers suggests there is a strong cultural effect, where physicians' use of SFRT is influenced by their colleagues' practice. SFRT use in BC was similar to that in other Canadian and western European reports but strikingly higher than in the United States. Further work is needed to standardize SFRT prescribing practices internationally for this common indication for RT, with the potential for huge health system cost savings and substantial improvements in patients' quality of life.

62 RADIOLOGY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE↗
DOE OSTI2013

Improving the Estimates of Waste from the Recycling of Used Nuclear Fuel - 13410

Estimates are presented of wastes arising from the reprocessing of 50 GWD/tonne, 5 year and 50 year cooled used nuclear fuel (UNF) from Light Water Reactors (LWRs), using the 'NUEX' solvent extraction process. NUEX is a fourth generation aqueous based reprocessing system, comprising shearing and dissolution in nitric acid of the UNF, separation of uranium and mixed uranium-plutonium using solvent extraction in a development of the PUREX process using tri-n-butyl phosphate in a kerosene diluent, purification of the plutonium and uranium-plutonium products, and conversion of them to uranium trioxide and mixed uranium-plutonium dioxides respectively. These products are suitable for use as new LWR uranium oxide and mixed oxide fuel, respectively. Each unit process is described and the wastes that it produces are identified and quantified. Quantification of the process wastes was achieved by use of a detailed process model developed using the Aspen Custom Modeler suite of software and based on both first principles equilibrium and rate data, plus practical experience and data from the industrial scale Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant (THORP) at the Sellafield nuclear site in the United Kingdom. By feeding this model with the known concentrations of all species in the incoming UNF, the species and their concentrations in all product and waste streams were produced as the output. By using these data, along with a defined set of assumptions, including regulatory requirements, it was possible to calculate the waste forms, their radioactivities, volumes and quantities. Quantification of secondary wastes, such as plant maintenance, housekeeping and clean-up wastes, was achieved by reviewing actual operating experience from THORP during its hot operation from 1994 to the present time. This work was carried out under a contract from the United States Department of Energy (DOE) and, so as to enable DOE to make valid comparisons with other similar work, a number of assumptions were agreed. These include an assumed reprocessing capacity of 800 tonnes per year, the requirement to remove as waste forms the volatile fission products carbon-14, iodine-129, krypton-85, tritium and ruthenium-106, the restriction of discharge of any water from the facility unless it meets US Environmental Protection Agency drinking water standards, no intentional blending of wastes to lower their classification, and the requirement for the recovered uranium to be sufficiently free from fission products and neutron-absorbing species to allow it to be re-enriched and recycled as nuclear fuel. The results from this work showed that over 99.9% of the radioactivity in the UNF can be concentrated via reprocessing into a fission-product-containing vitrified product, bottles of compressed krypton storage and a cement grout containing the tritium, that together have a volume of only about one eighth the volume of the original UNF. The other waste forms have larger volumes than the original UNF but contain only the remaining 0.1% of the radioactivity. (authors)

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
NASA NTRS2014

Orbital Debris Observations with WFCAM

The United Kingdom Infrared Telescope has been operating for 35 years on the summit of Mauna Kea as a premier Infrared astronomical facility. In its 35th year the telescope has been turned over to a new operating group consisting of University of Arizona, University of Hawaii and the LM Advanced Technology Center. UKIRT will continue its astronomical mission with a portion of observing time dedicated to orbital debris and Near Earth Object detection and characterization. During the past 10 years the UKIRT Wide Field CAMera (WFCAM) has been performing large area astronomical surveys in the J, H and K bands. The data for these surveys have been reduced by the Cambridge Astronomical Survey Unit in Cambridge, England and archived by the Wide Field Astronomy Unit in Edinburgh, Scotland. During January and February of 2014 the Wide Field CAMera (WFCAM) was used to scan through the geostationary satellite belt detecting operational satellites as well as nearby debris. Accurate photometric and astrometric parameters have been developed by CASU for each of the detections and all data has been archived by WFAU.

Bold, Matthew↗
DOE OSTI2026

Sensitivity of Anthropogenic Cloud Droplet Number Change to Preindustrial Emission Inventories and Physics Parameterizations

Understanding the preindustrial (PI) to present-day (PD) change in cloud droplet number concentration (ΔNd) is important to constrain the anthropogenic influence on clouds and aid future model projections. Perturbed parameter ensemble simulations of PI and PD conditions in the Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SMv3) reveal two locations with consistent negative ΔNd signal across parameter space–the Southeastern US and the United Kingdom–despite a trend of positive ΔNd globally from increased fossil fuel consumption. These negative ΔNd signals are driven by higher anthropogenic biofuel emissions in the PI. By varying the PI aerosol mass and/or number emissions across these data sets' uncertainty ranges, we can change the magnitude and sign of ΔNd and the effective radiative forcing from aerosol-cloud interactions (ERFaci) regionally and globally, with near-zero ΔNd leading to near-zero ERFaci. These results highlight the need to constrain PI emission uncertainty to better understand Earth system responses to aerosol-cloud interactions.

Brown, Hunter Y. [University of Wyoming, Laramie, ↗
DOE OSTI2016

Chapter 8 - Challenges and Opportunities for International Trade in Forest Biomass. In the book Mobilisation of Forest Bioenergy in the Boreal and Temperate Biomes.

In an effort to reduce fossil fuel consumption, the use of woody biomass for heat and power generation is growing. Key destination markets will be countries within the European Union (EU), particularly the United Kingdom (UK), the Netherlands, Denmark, and Belgium. While demand from Asia (particularly South Korea and Japan) will also increase, it will continue to play a secondary role. Across the EU, adoption of sustainability criteria for forest biomass based on the Renewable Energy Directive (RED) 2009/28/EC or similar criteria is likely. In the UK, the largest market for traded wood pellets, such criteria have already been proposed. As of 2015, only forest biomass that achieves at least a 60% reduction in GHG emissions relative to the EU fossil fuel electricity average can be used for bioenergy production, and proof of Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) is required. In the Netherlands, the energy industry and non-governmental organizations achieved principal agreement on sustainability criteria for solid biomass, but issues of compliance testing and monitoring must still be addressed. In Flemish Belgium, the sustainability requirements for bioliquids may soon be applied to woody biomass. In Denmark, a voluntary industry agreement is set to ensure that all bioenergy production by 2019 is conducted sustainably. At present, internationally traded wood pellets from temperate and boreal biomes originate primarily from the United States (US), Canada, and Russia. Among these, Canada offers large stretches of SFM-certified forests, but the US Southeast has seen the strongest increase in wood pellet production and export in recent years. The expansion of pellet production in the US Southeast is mainly linked to available forest inventory (pulpwood in particular)and the competitive advantage gained by the relative proximity to demand markets in the EU. In addition to the mobilization barriers observed in supply chains at the local and national scale, limitations in the supply of forest biomass for international trade will be influenced by regulatory measures that could restrict the trade of specific feedstock fractions.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗