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DOE OSTI2011

PRELUDE TO A DOUBLE DEGENERATE MERGER: THE ONSET OF MASS TRANSFER AND ITS IMPACT ON GRAVITATIONAL WAVES AND SURFACE DETONATIONS

We present the results of a systematic numerical study of the onset of mass transfer in double degenerate binary systems and its impact on the subsequent evolution. All investigated systems belong to the regime of direct impact, unstable mass transfer. In all of the investigated cases, even those considered unstable by conventional stability analysis, we find a long-lived mass transfer phase continuing for as many as several dozen orbital periods. This settles a recent debate sparked by a discrepancy between earlier smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) calculations that showed disruptions after a few orbital periods and newer grid-based studies in which mass transfer continued for tens of orbits. The number of orbits a binary survives sensitively depends on the exact initial conditions. We find that the approximate initial conditions that have been used in most previous SPH calculations have a serious impact on all stages of the evolution from the onset of mass transfer up to the final structure of the remnant. We compare 'approximate' initial conditions where spherical stars are placed at an initial separation obtained from an estimate of the Roche lobe size with 'accurate' initial conditions that were constructed by carefully driving the binary system to equilibrium by a relaxation scheme. Simulations that use the approximate initial conditions underestimate the initial separation when mass transfer sets in, which yields a binary that only survives for only a few orbits and thus a rapidly fading gravitational wave signal. Conversely, the accurate initial conditions produce a binary system in which the mass transfer phase is extended by almost two orders of magnitude in time, resulting in a gravitational wave signal with amplitude and frequency that remain essentially constant up until merger. As we show that these binaries can survive at small separation for hundreds of orbital periods, their associated gravitational wave signal should be included when calculating the gravitational wave foreground (although expected to be below Laser Interferometer Space Antenna's sensitivity at these high frequencies). We also show that the inclusion of the entropy increase associated with shock heating of the accreted material reduces the number of orbits a binary survives given the same initial conditions, although the effect is not as pronounced when using the appropriate initial conditions. The use of accurate initial conditions and a correct treatment of shock heating allows for a reliable time evolution of the temperature, density, and angular momentum, which are important when considering thermonuclear events that may occur during the mass transfer phase and/or after merger. Our treatment allows us to accurately identify when surface detonations may occur in the lead-up to the merger, as well as the properties of final merger products.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2011

BURNING THERMALS IN TYPE ia SUPERNOVAE

We develop a one-dimensional theoretical model for thermals burning in Type ia supernovae based on the entrainment assumption of Morton, Taylor, and Turner. Extensions of the standard model are required to account for the burning and for the expansion of the thermal due to changes in the background stratification found in the full star. The model is compared with high-resolution three-dimensional numerical simulations, both in a uniform environment and a full-star setting. The simulations in a uniform environment present compelling agreement with the predicted power laws and provide model constants for the full-star model, which then provides excellent agreement with the full-star simulation. The importance of the different components in the model is compared, and are all shown to be relevant. An examination of the effect of initial conditions was then conducted using the one-dimensional model, which would have been infeasible in three dimensions. More mass was burned when the ignition kernel was larger and closer to the center of the star. The turbulent flame speed was found to be important during the early-time evolution of the thermal, but played a diminished role at later times when the evolution is dominated by the large-scale hydrodynamics responsible for entrainment. However, a higher flame speed effectively gave a larger initial ignition kernel and so resulted in more mass burned. This suggests that future studies should focus on the early-time behavior of these thermals (in particular, the transition to turbulence), and that the choice of turbulent flame speed does not play a significant role in the dynamics once the thermal has become established.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2010

THREE-DIMENSIONAL MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICAL SIMULATIONS OF GRAVITATIONAL COLLAPSE OF A 15 M {sub sun} STAR

We introduce our two different newly developed, three-dimensional magnetohydrodynamical codes in detail. One of them is written in the Newtonian limit (NMHD) and the other is a fully general relativistic code (GRMHD). Both codes employ adaptive mesh refinement and, in GRMHD, the metric is evolved with the 'Baumgarte-Shapiro-Shibata-Nakamura' formalism known as the most stable method at present. We conducted several test problems and as for the first practical test, we calculated the gravitational collapse of a 15 M {sub sun} star. The main features found from our calculations are: (1) high-velocity bipolar outflow is driven from the proto-neutron star and moves along the rotational axis in strongly magnetized models, (2) a one-armed spiral structure appears, which originates from the low-|T/W| instability, and (3) by comparing the GRMHD and NMHD models, the maximum density increases about {approx}30% in GRMHD models due to the stronger gravitational effect. These features agree very well with previous studies and our codes are thus reliable for numerical simulation of gravitational collapse of massive stars.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2011

ELECTRON-CAPTURE SUPERNOVAE AS THE ORIGIN OF ELEMENTS BEYOND IRON

We examine electron-capture supernovae (ECSNe) as sources of elements heavier than iron in the solar system and in Galactic halo stars. Nucleosynthesis calculations are performed on the basis of thermodynamic histories of mass elements from a fully self-consistent, two-dimensional hydrodynamic explosion model of an ECSN. We find that neutron-rich convective lumps with an electron fraction down to Y{sub e,min} = 0.40, which are absent in the one-dimensional counterpart, allow for interesting production of elements between the iron group and N = 50 nuclei (from Zn to Zr, with little Ga) in nuclear (quasi-)equilibrium. Our models yield very good agreement with the Ge, Sr, Y, and Zr abundances of r-process-deficient Galactic halo stars and constrain the occurrence of ECSNe to {approx}4% of all stellar core-collapse events. If tiny amounts of additional material with slightly lower Y{sub e,min} down to {approx}0.30-0.35 were also ejected-which presently cannot be excluded because of the limitations of resolution and two dimensionality of the model-a weak r-process can yield elements beyond N = 50 up to Pd, Ag, and Cd as observed in the r-process-deficient stars.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2011

NUCLEAR STAR-FORMING RING OF THE MILKY WAY: SIMULATIONS

We present hydrodynamic simulations of gas clouds in the central kpc region of the Milky Way that is modeled with a three-dimensional bar potential. Our simulations consider realistic gas cooling and heating, star formation, and supernova feedback. A ring of dense gas clouds forms as a result of X{sub 1}-X{sub 2} orbit transfer, and our potential model results in a ring radius of {approx}200 pc, which coincides with the extraordinary reservoir of dense molecular clouds in the inner bulge, the Central Molecular Zone (CMZ). The gas clouds accumulated in the CMZ can reach high enough densities to form stars, and with an appropriate choice of simulation parameters, we successfully reproduce the observed gas mass and the star formation rate (SFR) in the CMZ, {approx}2 x 10{sup 7} M{sub sun} and {approx}0.1 M{sub sun} yr{sup -1}. Star formation in our simulations takes place mostly in the outermost X{sub 2} orbits, and the SFR per unit surface area outside the CMZ is much lower. These facts suggest that the inner Galactic bulge may harbor a mild version of the nuclear star-forming rings seen in some external disk galaxies. Furthermore, from the relatively small size of the Milky Way's nuclear bulge, which is thought to be a result of sustained star formation in the CMZ, we infer that the Galactic inner bulge probably had a shallower density profile or stronger bar elongation in the past.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2011

Nanostructures of Liquid Crystal Phases in Mixtures of Bent-core and Rod-shaped Molecules

We report small angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) studies of isotropic, nematic, and smectic mesophases formed by binary mixtures of bent-core (BC) and rod-shaped (RS) molecules. While optical studies indicate that the components are fully miscible, SAXS reveals fascinating structures that are consistent with segregation on a nanoscopic scale. We find that tilted smectic clusters, which have been previously reported in both the nematic and isotropic states of the pure BC materials, are also present in mixtures with up to 50 wt% of the RS compound; this is consistent with previous dielectric and flexoelectric studies on such mixtures. Unexpectedly in this concentration range the clusters are present in the isotropic and in the induced smectic phase range, as well as throughout the nematic phase. The results in the smectic phase also reveal complex layering phenomena, providing important insight into the interaction between bent and rod-shaped molecules. These studies will be crucial in the design of promising new functional nanomaterials.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2023

Improved analytic modeling of the linear Rayleigh–Taylor instability with plasma transport

The Rayleigh–Taylor (R–T) instability with transport effects has long been studied analytically in the neutral fluid regime. How this picture may differ in plasmas has been given less consideration, however. Leveraging previous numerical simulations with plasma viscosity and diffusion of R–T at a binary plasma interface, we show how plasma transport and kinetic effects alter the linear R–T dispersion relation. Our insight informs a much improved analytical dispersion relation, which better matches the simulation data than previously established models. Additionally, we demonstrate the importance of employing asymptotically correct viscosity coefficients in fluid codes for accurately capturing plasma R–T growth.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2018

Premelting, Melting, and Degradation Properties of Molten Alkali Nitrates: LiNO{sub 3}, NaNO{sub 3}, KNO{sub 3}, and Binary NaNO{sub 3}-KNO{sub 3}

A simultaneous thermal analyzer (STA) was used to observe the transition and degradation events of LiNO{sub 3}, NaNO{sub 3}, KNO{sub 3}, and binary NaNO{sub 3}-KNO{sub 3} salts for potential use as phase change materials (PCMs) and heat transfer fluid (HTF). Samples were heated from 50 °C to 800 °C at 10 °C/min scanning rate in three atmospheres (argon, air, and oxygen) using an STA to observe decomposition behavior. Thermal stability increased for all salts at high partial pressure of O{sub 2} (P{sub O{sub 2}}= 1.0) compared to inert argon (P{sub O{sub 2}}= 0). O{sub 2}, N{sub 2}, NO, N{sub 2}O, and NO{sub 2} were main evolved gases during nitrate decomposition. NO and O{sub 2} started to evolve at approximately the same temperature after melting, indicating that primary and secondary decomposition reactions were concurrent and overlapping. The solid-solid transition, liquidus and solidus temperatures, heat of transition, heat of melting, and heat of solidification were obtained at various heating-cooling rates (1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, and 15 °C/min) using an STA. At all heating-cooling rates, a small gap exists between liquidus and solidus temperatures for all samples due to the salts exhibiting supercooling phenomena. This study showed that the degradation point depends on the blanket atmosphere top of the molten salts and that heating rates have a minor effect on transition events (peaks height, peaks width, and transition enthalpies).

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2014

Group contribution methodology based on the statistical associating fluid theory for heteronuclear molecules formed from Mie segments

A generalization of the recent version of the statistical associating fluid theory for variable range Mie potentials [Lafitte et al., J. Chem. Phys. 139, 154504 (2013)] is formulated within the framework of a group contribution approach (SAFT-γ Mie). Molecules are represented as comprising distinct functional (chemical) groups based on a fused heteronuclear molecular model, where the interactions between segments are described with the Mie (generalized Lennard-Jonesium) potential of variable attractive and repulsive range. A key feature of the new theory is the accurate description of the monomeric group-group interactions by application of a high-temperature perturbation expansion up to third order. The capabilities of the SAFT-γ Mie approach are exemplified by studying the thermodynamic properties of two chemical families, the n-alkanes and the n-alkyl esters, by developing parameters for the methyl, methylene, and carboxylate functional groups (CH{sub 3}, CH{sub 2}, and COO). The approach is shown to describe accurately the fluid-phase behavior of the compounds considered with absolute average deviations of 1.20% and 0.42% for the vapor pressure and saturated liquid density, respectively, which represents a clear improvement over other existing SAFT-based group contribution approaches. The use of Mie potentials to describe the group-group interaction is shown to allow accurate simultaneous descriptions of the fluid-phase behavior and second-order thermodynamic derivative properties of the pure fluids based on a single set of group parameters. Furthermore, the application of the perturbation expansion to third order for the description of the reference monomeric fluid improves the predictions of the theory for the fluid-phase behavior of pure components in the near-critical region. The predictive capabilities of the approach stem from its formulation within a group-contribution formalism: predictions of the fluid-phase behavior and thermodynamic derivative properties of compounds not included in the development of group parameters are demonstrated. The performance of the theory is also critically assessed with predictions of the fluid-phase behavior (vapor-liquid and liquid-liquid equilibria) and excess thermodynamic properties of a variety of binary mixtures, including polymer solutions, where very good agreement with the experimental data is seen, without the need for adjustable mixture parameters.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2017

Modified kinetic theory applied to the shear flows of granular materials

Here, granular materials are characterized by large collections of discrete particles, where the particle-particle interactions are significantly more important than the particle-fluid interactions. The current kinetic theory captures fairly accurately the granular flow behavior in the dilute case, when only binary interactions are significant, but is not accurate at all in the dense flow regime, where multi-particle interactions and contacts must be modeled. To improve the kinetic theory results for granular flows in the dense flow regime, we propose a Modified Kinetic Theory (MKT) model that utilizes the contact duration or cut-off time to account for the complex particle-particle interactions in the dense regime. The contact duration model, also called TC model, is originally proposed by Luding and McNamara to solve the inelastic collapse issue existing in the Inelastic Hard Sphere (IHS) model. This model defines a cut-off time t c such that dissipation is not counted if the time between two consecutive contacts is less than t c . As shown in their study, the use of a cut-off time t c can also reduce the dissipation during multi-particle contacts. In this paper we relate the TC model with the Discrete Element Method (DEM) by choosing the cut-off time t c to be the duration of contact calculated from the linear-spring-dashpot soft-sphere model of the DEM. We examine two types of granular flows: simple shear flow and the plane shear flow, and compare the results of the classical Kinetic Theory (KT) model, the present MKT model, and the DEM model. Here, we show that the MKT model entails a significant improvement over the KT model for simple shear flows at inertial regimes. With the MKT model the calculations are close to the DEM results at solid fractions as high as 0.57. Even for the plane shear flows, where shear rate and solid fraction are inhomogeneous, the results of the MKT model agree very well with the DEM results.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2017

Gravitational Waves from F-modes Excited by the Inspiral of Highly Eccentric Neutron Star Binaries

As gravitational wave instrumentation becomes more sensitive, it is interesting to speculate about subtle effects that could be analyzed using upcoming generations of detectors. One such effect that has great potential for revealing the properties of very dense matter is fluid oscillations of neutron stars. These have been found in numerical simulations of the hypermassive remnants of double neutron star mergers and of highly eccentric neutron star orbits. Here we focus on the latter and sketch out some ideas for the production, gravitational-wave detection, and analysis of neutron star oscillations. These events will be rare (perhaps up to several tens per year could be detected using third-generation detectors such as the Einstein Telescope or the Cosmic Explorer), but they would have unique diagnostic power for the analysis of cold, catalyzed, dense matter. Furthermore, these systems are unusual in that analysis of the tidally excited f-modes of the stars could yield simultaneous measurements of their masses, moments of inertia, and tidal Love numbers, using the frequency, damping time, and amplitude of the modes. They would thus present a nearly unique opportunity to test the I-Love-Q relation observationally. The analysis of such events will require significant further work in nuclear physics and general relativistic nonlinear mode coupling, and thus we discuss further directions that will need to be pursued. For example, we note that for nearly grazing encounters, numerical simulations show that the energy delivered to the f-modes may be up to two orders of magnitude greater than predicted in the linear theory.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2025

Foaming prediction in pure liquids from dimensionless numbers inspired by the theory of fluid behavior for drops

Foaming prediction is critical for selecting materials and designing processes in industries such as bioprocessing and gas processing. Existing models lack the generality needed for a wide range of materials and overlook the foaming behavior in pure liquids. Here, this work presents a novel method for predicting foaming in pure liquids based on their density, surface tension, and viscosity, using Reynolds ( Re ) and Ohnesorge ( Oh ) numbers. A foaming prediction map, leveraging the theory of fluid drop behavior, was developed by plotting these numbers. This map delineates distinct non-foaming and foaming regions, functioning as a binary classifier for foaming predictions. The map was fitted and validated through shake test experiments on 46 liquids, demonstrating reliable predictions, except for a specific region characterized by small Oh and large Re numbers. This region corresponded to relatively low foam stability and high turbulence, making foaming predictions challenging for liquids in this category.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2010

THE SPECTRAL EVOLUTION AND EJECTA OF RECURRENT NOVA U Sco IN THE 2010 OUTBURST

Synoptic spectroscopic observations of the U Sco 2010 outburst from maximum light to quiescence as well as a contemporaneous X-ray observation are presented and analyzed. The X-ray spectrum 52 days after outburst indicates a hot source (kT{sub bb} {approx} 70 eV). Narrow-line components from the irradiated companion atmosphere were observed in hydrogen and helium optical recombination lines. The formation of a nebular spectrum is seen for the first time in this class of recurrent novae, allowing a detailed study of the ejecta using photoionization models. Unusual [O III] auroral-to-nebular line ratios were found and possible scenarios of their origin are discussed. The modeling of the emission line spectrum suggests highly heterogeneous ejecta with masses around or above 3 x 10{sup -6} M{sub sun}.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2010

A COMMON SOURCE OF ACCRETION DISK TILT

Many different system types retrogradely precess, and retrograde precession could be from a tidal torque by the secondary on a misaligned accretion disk. However, a source that causes and maintains disk tilt is unknown. In this work, we show that accretion disks can tilt due to a force called lift. Lift results from differing gas stream supersonic speeds over and under an accretion disk. Because lift acts at the disk's center of pressure, a torque is applied around a rotation axis passing through the disk's center of mass. The disk responds to lift by pitching around the disk's line of nodes. If the gas stream flow ebbs, then lift also ebbs and the disk attempts to return to its original orientation. To first approximation, lift does not depend on magnetic fields or radiation sources but does depend on the mass and the surface area of the disk. Also, for disk tilt to be initiated, a minimum mass transfer rate must be exceeded. For example, a 10{sup -11} M{sub sun} disk around a 0.8 M{sub sun} compact central object requires a mass transfer rate greater than {approx} 8 x 10{sup -11} M{sub sun} yr{sup -1}, a value well below the known mass transfer rates in cataclysmic variable dwarf novae systems that retrogradely precess and exhibit negative superhumps in their light curves and a value well below mass transfer rates in protostellar-forming systems.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2011

EFFECTS OF ROTATION ON STOCHASTICITY OF GRAVITATIONAL WAVES IN THE NONLINEAR PHASE OF CORE-COLLAPSE SUPERNOVAE

By performing three-dimensional (3D) simulations that demonstrate the neutrino-driven core-collapse supernovae aided by the standing accretion shock instability (SASI), we study how the spiral modes of the SASI can impact the properties of the gravitational-wave (GW) emission. To see the effects of rotation in the nonlinear postbounce phase, we give a uniform rotation on the flow advecting from the outer boundary of the iron core, the specific angular momentum of which is assumed to agree with recent stellar evolution models. We compute fifteen 3D models in which the initial angular momentum and the input neutrino luminosities from the protoneutron star are changed in a systematic manner. By performing a ray-tracing analysis, we accurately estimate the GW amplitudes generated by anisotropic neutrino emission. Our results show that the gravitational waveforms from neutrinos in models that include rotation exhibit a common feature; otherwise, they vary much more stochastically in the absence of rotation. The breaking of the stochasticity stems from the excess of the neutrino emission parallel to the spin axis. This is because the compression of matter is more enhanced in the vicinity of the equatorial plane due to the growth of the spiral SASI modes, leading to the formation of the spiral flows circulating around the spin axis with higher temperatures. We point out that recently proposed future space interferometers like Fabry-Perot-type DECIGO would permit the detection of these signals for a Galactic supernova.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2011

EXPLOSIVE NUCLEOSYNTHESIS IN THE NEUTRINO-DRIVEN ASPHERICAL SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION OF A NON-ROTATING 15 M{sub sun} STAR WITH SOLAR METALLICITY

We investigate explosive nucleosynthesis in a non-rotating 15 M{sub sun} star with solar metallicity that explodes by a neutrino-heating supernova (SN) mechanism aided by both standing accretion shock instability (SASI) and convection. To trigger explosions in our two-dimensional hydrodynamic simulations, we approximate the neutrino transport with a simple light-bulb scheme and systematically change the neutrino fluxes emitted from the protoneutron star. By a post-processing calculation, we evaluate abundances and masses of the SN ejecta for nuclei with a mass number {<=}70, employing a large nuclear reaction network. Aspherical abundance distributions, which are observed in nearby core-collapse SN remnants, are obtained for the non-rotating spherically symmetric progenitor, due to the growth of a low-mode SASI. The abundance pattern of the SN ejecta is similar to that of the solar system for models whose masses range between (0.4-0.5) M{sub sun} of the ejecta from the inner region ({<=}10, 000 km) of the precollapse core. For the models, the explosion energies and the {sup 56}Ni masses are {approx_equal} 10{sup 51}erg and (0.05-0.06) M{sub sun}, respectively; their estimated baryonic masses of the neutron star are comparable to the ones observed in neutron-star binaries. These findings may have little uncertainty because most of the ejecta is composed of matter that is heated via the shock wave and has relatively definite abundances. The abundance ratios for Ne, Mg, Si, and Fe observed in the Cygnus loop are reproduced well with the SN ejecta from an inner region of the 15 M{sub sun} progenitor.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2011

SHOCK BREAKOUT IN TYPE II PLATEAU SUPERNOVAE: PROSPECTS FOR HIGH-REDSHIFT SUPERNOVA SURVEYS

Shock breakout is the brightest radiative phenomenon in a supernova (SN) but is difficult to be observed owing to the short duration and X-ray/ultraviolet (UV)-peaked spectra. After the first observation from the rising phase reported in 2008, its observability at high redshift is attracting enormous attention. We perform multigroup radiation hydrodynamics calculations of explosions for evolutionary presupernova models with various main-sequence masses M {sub MS}, metallicities Z, and explosion energies E. We present multicolor light curves of shock breakouts in Type II plateau SNe, being the most frequent core-collapse SNe, and predict apparent multicolor light curves of shock breakout at various redshifts z. We derive the observable SN rate and reachable redshift as functions of filter x and limiting magnitude m {sub x,lim} by taking into account an initial mass function, cosmic star formation history, intergalactic absorption, and host galaxy extinction. We propose a realistic survey strategy optimized for shock breakout. For example, the g'-band observable SN rate for m {sub g',lim} = 27.5 mag is 3.3 SNe deg{sup -2} day{sup -1} and half of them are located at z {>=} 1.2. It is clear that the shock breakout is a beneficial clue for probing high-z core-collapse SNe. We also establish ways to identify shock breakout and constrain SN properties from the observations of shock breakout, brightness, timescale, and color. We emphasize that the multicolor observations in blue optical bands with {approx}hour intervals, preferably over {>=}2 continuous nights, are essential to efficiently detect, identify, and interpret shock breakout.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2022

Altering the Supply of Shielding Gases to Fabricate Distinct Geometry in GMA Additive Manufacturing

Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is the process by which large, metallic structures are built, layer-by-layer, using a welding arc to melt wire feedstock. In this process, the proper selection of the shielding gas plays a vital role in the achievement of structurally acceptable part geometries and quality surface finishes. In this study, the authors used either a ternary mix (He, Ar and CO 2 ) or a binary mix (Ar and CO 2 ) of shielding gases to deposit wall geometries using an open loop-controlled WAAM system developed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory’s Manufacturing Demonstration Facility. The binary blend produced a wider and shorter geometry, while the ternary blend resulted in a narrower build that was more equivalent to the CAD geometry. The data indicated that the binary blend provided a higher oxygen concentration in the weld as compared to that of the ternary blend. The results imply that the arc characteristics and heat input had a significantly higher impact on the weld penetration than the surface tension effect of surface active elements. This was further verified by developing and applying a high-fidelity computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model of the thermophysical properties of gas mixtures. The results from the model showed that, while the influence of increased oxygen concentration on the surface tension for the binary blend led to a deeper penetration, the ternary blend gave rise to heat flux to the workpiece.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗