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All sources NASA NTRS DOE OSTI

DOE OSTI2017

System Dynamics Analysis of Strategies to Reduce Energy Use in Aluminum-Intensive Sectors

Aluminum is one of the most widely used materials in industry, with applications in buildings, vehicles, aircraft, and consumer products. Its ubiquity is also on the rise: aluminum is beginning to supplant steel in lightweight vehicles and aircraft, and is used in many green or LEED-certified buildings. Although aluminum tends to be highly recycled, particularly by manufacturers of aluminum products, the sector as a whole is still far from a closed system. As a result, the increase in aluminum consumption also means an increase in primary aluminum production-an energy-intensive process-and an increase in consumption of the raw material bauxite, which in the U.S. is almost entirely imported. Our objectives for this study are to identify and analyze aluminum sector technologies and practices that reduce the energy required to manufacture aluminum products and reduce U.S. dependence on imported aluminum and bauxite. To accomplish these objectives, we will develop a system dynamics (SD) model of aluminum production, use and recycling in key application areas, including aerospace, ground vehicles and consumer products. The model will cover the entire aluminum supply chain as it exists in the U.S., from bauxite importing and refining, to the manufacture of products, to the product use phase and end-of-life processing steps. Aluminum flows throughout the model will be determined by the annual domestic demand for each application area as well as demand projections that extend to 2030. Energy consumption will be tracked based on the flows of aluminum through each step of the supply chain. Using the SD model, we will evaluate several technologies and practices that have the potential to reduce energy consumption and reliance on imported bauxite. These include implementation of advanced primary aluminum production technologies, increased recycling within and between application areas, increased material efficiency and increased product lifetimes. Each of these strategies results in short term reductions in energy use, and every strategy except the advance production technologies will also reduce the need for imported bauxite. This model differs from other SD models previously built to study aluminum stocks and flows in two key areas- alloy recycling and product lifetimes. Aluminum recycling is frequently complicated by the need to maintain quality of many different alloys, especially in aerospace applications. This necessitates scrap sorting and product disassembly to avoid contamination; advanced recycling processes of this type are one of the strategies to be evaluated. Product lifetime similarly complicates aluminum recycling, as products with longer lifetimes yield smaller recycling streams compared to disposable or short lifetime products, such as soda cans. When these additional complexities are accounted for in the SD model, a more realistic idea of the short term and long term impacts of the various strategies can be captured, as can any potential synergies and trade-offs between the strategies. Results of the analysis will indicate which strategy, or combination of strategies, yields the lowest cumulative energy consumption and bauxite consumption required to satisfy current and future demand for aluminum products.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2017

Convergence and Commercial Momentum - Industrial Internet of Things Evolution

Industrial instrumentation and sensors are purpose-built for applications. Rugged and proven for field applications in harsh environments, such as on an oil platform or in a copper mine 5,000-feet below ground, these instruments require reliability and performance. Before the turn of the millennium, industrial technology-and information technology (IT) in particular-drove these systems, and they often exceeded the abilities of consumer products. However, as we stand today, commercial Internet of Things (IoT) technology has advanced rapidly, with industrial control systems lagging in intelligence and features. Experienced owner-operators of industrial facilities recognize the buzz surrounding the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) but often shun the notion of consumer-grade devices being installed and integrated into an operational control system. During the International Society of Automation (ISA) Process Control and Safety Forum (PCS) in Houston, Texas, in November 2016, ISA’s Communication Division convened a panel to focus on IIoT. Experienced industrial and control engineers on the panel expressed concerns and reservations with IIoT. Whereas some acknowledged an interest in the topic, others did not recognize it as an inevitable part of the industrial controls landscape. Granted, IIoT is still mostly a vision in the instrumentation and automation landscape; however, its place on stage is coming into view. During the opening session of PCS 2016, ISA President Jim Keaveney rhetorically asked the audience if IoT had peaked and also wondered if “cyber” would be the next area for innovation. This paper will explore the nexus of “domestic” IoT and how product evolution will drive its development toward that of IIoT.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗

DOE OSTI2018

National Plug-In Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Analysis

This presentation describes a study conducted by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory quantifying the charging station infrastructure required to serve the growing U.S. fleet of plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs). PEV sales, which include plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs), have surged recently. Most PEV charging occurs at home, but widespread PEV adoption will require the development of a national network of non-residential charging stations. Installation of these stations strategically would maximize the economic viability of early stations while enabling efficient network growth as the PEV market matures. This document describes what effective co-evolution of the PEV fleet and charging infrastructure might look like under a range of scenarios. To develop the roadmap, NREL analyzed PEV charging requirements along interstate corridors and within urban and rural communities. The results suggest that a few hundred corridor fast-charging stations could enable long-distance BEV travel between U.S. cities. Compared to interstate corridors, urban and rural communities are expected to have significantly larger charging infrastructure requirements. About 8,000 fast-charging stations would be required to provide a minimum level of coverage nationwide. In an expanding PEV market, the total number of non-residential charging outlets or 'plugs' required to meet demand ranges from around 100,000 to more than 1.2 million. Understanding what drives this large range in capacity requirements is critical. For example, whether consumers prefer long-range or short-range PEVs has a larger effect on plug requirements than does the total number of PEVs on the road. The relative success of PHEVs versus BEVs also has a major impact, as does the number of PHEVs that charge away from home. This study shows how important it is to understand consumer preferences and driving behaviors when planning charging networks.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2018

Tune-Up Your Fan Systems for Improved Performance

Fans are used extensively in commercial buildings and represent approximately 6% of total energy consumed by commercial buildings. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) estimates that fans in commercial buildings consume 158 billion kWh of electricity annually. Maintaining fan systems in proper condition provides energy savings and ensures a comfortable and healthy environment. While many fan systems have significant energy savings opportunities available through improvements in fan selection, system design, and operational practices, it is not always apparent when a fan system needs maintenance or what opportunities are available for improvements. This resource is designed for facility managers and maintenance staff to provide easy-to-implement actionable guidance on fan efficiency measures for existing ducted air systems.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2018

Will Vehicle Automation Accelerate or Decelerate Electrification: Modeling Demand for Automated Electric Vehicles

Automation may induce more travel demand, posing a threat to energy security and environmental quality unless the induced travel demand is served with more efficient or clean fuel technologies. This study attempts to analyze whether automation may promote or discourage market acceptance of plug-in electric vehicles. A consumer choice model called MA3T-MC is developed to cover automated vehicles by expanding the existing MA3T model that focuses only on fuel type choices. Key findings include: 1) automation may increase sales shares of gasoline conventional vehicles and decrease shares of efficient vehicles including HEVs and PHEVs, due to greater energy cost savings for less efficient vehicles. 2) Automation may increase market shares of BEVs, due to the “free” range extension from the efficiency improvement by automation. 3) consumer heterogeneity is important in quantifying the national impact of automation on sales shares by fuel types and the total energy use.

Lin, Zhenhong↗

DOE OSTI2018

Creating a Virtual Utility District: Assessing Quality and Building Energy Impacts of Microclimate Simulations

Buildings in China, India, the United States (US), and United Kingdom (UK) consume 39-45% of each nation's primary energy with fast-growing countries like India projected to use 76% of their primary energy by 2040. In the United States, 73% of all electricity is consumed by buildings. In an effort to better operate electrical grids, needs exist to generate improved load models by better understanding and quantifying weather impacts and microclimate effects on building-specific energy use throughout a city.Scalable methods have been created to allow urban-scale energy modeling – to identify and synthesize a fully-articulated building energy model for every building in an area of interest. This was applied to the 1,385 km2 utility district serviced by the Electric Power Board of Chattanooga, TN. Each building is simulated on the world’s 4th-fastest supercomputer, Titan, using the U.S. Dept. of Energy’s flagship whole-building simulation tool, EnergyPlus, to analyze relationships among climatic conditions, urban morphology, land cover, and energy use. The Weather Research Forecast (WRF) model was scaled on several High Performance Computing (HPC) resources to simulate microclimate variation under different urban morphologies. We analyze the differences between WRF-based microclimate simulations and measured weather station data. This information is then used to quantify impact of microclimate variation and variable-specific meteorological variables on the electrical consumption for individual buildings and show impacts at the scale of a utility district.

New, Joshua↗

DOE OSTI2018

Modeling Framework and Results to Inform Charging Infrastructure Investments

Plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) sales in the United States increased by 40% in 2016, reaching a total stock of over 500,000 vehicles. Still, widespread market adoption of PEVs remains hindered by many factors, including a lack of a convenient and ubiquitous network of charging stations. Understanding the barriers to and benefits of deploying a widespread and effective network of PEV charging stations, also known as electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE), is particularly important. Such a network would promote PEV consumer acceptance and market growth, enable long-distance travel for BEVs (alleviating the range anxiety concerns of many consumers), and potentially increase the share of electric miles driven by PHEVs. Infrastructure planning must anticipate PEV adoption while remaining cost-effective so low station utilization does not severely undermine the business case for building and operating stations. This project presents an approach for developing a U.S. network of non-residential EVSE that enables broader PEV adoption and maximizes PEV use. This analysis can help inform various public and private stakeholders who are seeking to provide nationwide charging coverage and improve the business case for building stations by maximizing station utilization.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗

DOE OSTI2018

Valuing Energy Efficiency and Distributed Energy Resources in the Built Environment: Preprint

Traditionally, analytical frameworks that underpin building energy policy have focused on the need to reduce annual energy consumption by assessing the cost and efficiency performance of energy-consuming technologies. Investments in distributed energy resources (DERs) such as photovoltaics have generally been evaluated independently, but also on a cost and performance basis. However, buildings are rapidly evolving to incorporate technologies that not just consume energy, but also generate, store, and control energy loads. Concurrently, the electric grid is becoming more dynamic and variable due to the increased proportion electricity production from variable renewable sources. To that end, building energy policy analytical frameworks should be updated to include the interactions between energy efficiency and DERs as well as potential value streams for the grid and building owner that technologies or packages of technologies might offer. As buildings with DERs and controllable loads are able to provide grid services or optimize operations based on electricity rates and grid conditions, the temporal and spatial nature of these technologies should also be incorporated into design decisions. To explore these questions further, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory will use a series of building and electric grid models to simulate the design and operation of a neighborhood of buildings under various electricity rates, grid conditions, and potential compensation scenarios. Scenarios of time-sensitive values for future grid services will also be constructed for use in the analysis. New metrics that can be used in building energy policies will also be explored to capture the responsiveness or flexibility of high efficiency buildings with DERs under various electric grid conditions and future scenarios.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2018

UTEMPRA - Unitary Thermal Energy Management for Propulsion Range Augmentation

Key hurdles to achieving wide consumer acceptance of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are weather-dependent drive range, higher cost, and limited battery life. These translate into a strong need to reduce a significant energy drain and resulting drive range loss due to auxiliary electrical loads the predominant of which is the cabin thermal management load. Studies have shown that thermal subsystem loads can reduce the drive range by as much as 45% under ambient temperatures below -10 degrees C. Often, cabin heating relies purely on positive temperature coefficient (PTC) resistive heating, contributing to a significant range loss. Reducing this range loss may improve consumer acceptance of BEVs. The authors present a unified thermal management system (UTEMPRA) that satisfies diverse thermal and design needs of the auxiliary loads in BEVs. Demonstrated on a 2015 Fiat 500e BEV, this system integrates a semi-hermetic refrigeration loop with a coolant network and serves three functions: (1) heating and/or cooling vehicle traction components (battery, power electronics, and motor), (2) heating and cooling of the cabin, and (3) waste energy harvesting and re-use. The modes of operation allow a heat pump and air conditioning system to function without reversing the refrigeration cycle to improve thermal efficiency. The refrigeration loop consists of an electric compressor, a thermal expansion valve, a coolant-cooled condenser, and a chiller, the latter two exchanging heat with hot and cold coolant streams that may be directed to various components of the thermal system. The coolant-based heat distribution is adaptable and saves significant amounts of refrigerant per vehicle. Also, a coolant-based system reduces refrigerant emissions by requiring fewer refrigerant pipe joints. The authors present bench-level test data and simulation analysis and describe a preliminary control scheme for this system.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗

DOE OSTI2018

Let the Good Times Roll – Energy Code Savings into the Future

Long term benefits of energy codes provide valuable information for setting policies, for state adoption, and in evaluating the cost-benefits of energy codes. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) evaluated the long-term impacts associated with energy codes in residential and commercial buildings from 2010 through 2040. The analysis developed and implemented a new methodology that relied on available data and market trends. The study was heavily vetted with key stakeholders including, DOE, Regional Energy Efficiency Organization network (REEOs), ACEEE and others. Several complex streams of information were combined in the analysis, including results from hundreds of simulation models, codes field study data from DOE, floor space data from EIA's Annual Energy Outlook, and data on projected technology improvements from DOE’s Technology Roadmaps. This paper describes the methodology used for the assessment and presents the energy and economic impacts in terms of site energy savings, consumer energy cost savings, and reduced CO2 emissions at the state level and at aggregated national level. The assessment concluded that model energy codes will save $126 billion for consumers on their utility bills, reduce carbon emissions by 841 metric-million tons, and save 12.82 quads of primary energy on a cumulative basis from 2010 through 2040. The results are being used by DOE to underline their role in improving building energy efficiency, by REEOs and states for promoting state code adoption, and by ACEEE and others to perform their own analyses related to energy codes.

buidling energy codes, Impacts of Energy Codes↗

DOE OSTI2018

Valuing Energy Efficiency and Distributed Energy Resources in the Built Environment

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2017

Battery anode with preloaded metals

A method is presented for fabricating an anode preloaded with consumable metals. The method provides a material (X), which may be one of the following materials: carbon, metals able to be electrochemically alloyed with a metal (Me), intercalation oxides, electrochemically active organic compounds, and combinations of the above-listed materials. The method loads the metal (Me) into the material (X). Typically, Me is an alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, or a combination of the two. As a result, the method forms a preloaded anode comprising Me/X for use in a battery comprising a M1YM2Z(CN)N.MH2O cathode, where M1 and M2 are transition metals. The method loads the metal (Me) into the material (X) using physical (mechanical) mixing, a chemical reaction, or an electrochemical reaction. Also provided is preloaded anode, preloaded with consumable metals.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2019

Novel Low-Cost Approach for Acquiring High Resolution High-Speed Data

The Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) has developed and tested a novel system architecture for acquiring high fidelity high-speed data. The approach uses a low-cost consumer grade audio recording device coupled with computing technology running open-source software. The main advantage of this approach is perchannel cost; an instrument grade data acquisition system typically costs between $800 to $2,000 per channel compared to less than $50 per channel for these consumer grade components. Three systems, each featuring four channels, have been deployed for acquiring data from geophones and the electrical supply system that supports the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) and the Radiochemical Engineering Development Center (REDC) at ORNL. Each channel samples at 96 kHz at 24-bit resolution. The deployed systems operate continuously 24/7 and produce about 4 terabytes of data per month per system. This paper provides a technical overview of this approach, its implementation, and some preliminary results from qualification testing. This work was conducted in support of the Multi-Informatics for Nuclear Operations Scenarios (MINOS).

Wetherington Jr, G↗

DOE OSTI2019

Chapter 6: Wind Energy: Effects on Bats

Utility-scale wind energy facilities require no fuel, consume no water, and produce no greenhouse gas emissions or other pollutants during energy production. Wind power currently supplies approximately 6.4% of the electricity consumed in the United States (U.S.), with continued growth expected in the coming years. Although further expansion of wind power is anticipated to provide environmental and economic benefits, there are increasing concerns about bat fatalities occurring at wind energy facilities across North America. Recent estimates place the number of bat fatalities in the several hundreds of thousands on an annual basis, and that number is projected to rise. As a result, population-level impacts of wind turbine-caused mortality are of increasing concern. For example, modeling efforts for a widespread species, the hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus), indicate that the population could decline by 90% within 50 years, assuming no growth in installed wind power capacity and no significant implementation of conservation measures. Given increasing demand for wind energy and increasing evidence suggesting that bats are attracted to wind turbines, the need to develop cost-effective and practical impact minimization strategies is a high priority. Current strategies include siting restrictions and operational minimization, both of which limit wind power generation. Potential solutions that do not limit power generation include broadcasting ultrasound from wind turbines or using ultraviolet (UV) light to deter bats from approaching and entering the rotor-swept area where fatalities occur. Another possible solution is the development of turbine-surface materials that reduce the relative attractiveness of wind turbine towers to bats. In this chapter, we provide a succinct summary of known impacts of wind energy on bats and present current and future research priorities. We also describe the challenges and opportunities associated with developing and implementing effective solutions to minimize wind turbine-caused bat fatality.

17 WIND ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2020

RL-HEMS: Reinforcement Learning Based Home Energy Management System for HVAC Energy Optimization

Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) is one of the major energy consumers in the residential sector. It is important to be able to monitor and control the energy consumed to provide utility services such as load shaping while satisfying the comfort and economic constraints of the homeowner. The objective of this work is to create the optimal schedule for HVAC operation to reduce the cost while satisfying the home-owner and equipment’s constraints using a model-free Reinforcement Learning (RL)-based optimization. The specific goal is to find the right balance between reducing energy cost, consumption, and customer comfort level. Our research effort addresses this optimization problem using multiple components: the development of initial learning test-bed and implementation of RL techniques on a real home. This will enable the rapid evaluation of the RL techniques and provide an early baseline to train before implementation on site. The RL algorithm is designed to learn the energy use patterns and generate the optimized schedule for HVAC within an acceptable time-interval to satisfy the homeowner’s comfort and minimize the energy usage. Our preliminary results are promising and we have observed a 17% reduction in the total cost and a 15% reduction in the power utilization using our RL-based HVAC model—RL-HEMS.

Kotevska, Olivera↗

DOE OSTI2020

Vehicle Platooning: An Energy Consumption Perspective

Urban traffic congestion is a chronic problem faced by many cities in the US and worldwide. It results in inefficient infrastructure use as well as increased vehicle fuel consumption and emission levels. Excessive fuel consumptions add extra costs to commuters as well as transportation businesses. Consuming less fuel and thus reducing costs by a single percentage digit can have a significant impact on the balance sheet as well as the protection of the environment. Researchers have developed, and continue to develop, tools and systems to optimize the operations of fleets as well as engines in order to burn less fuel and therefore generate less CO2 emissions. Platooning is one such tool that attempts to maintain relatively small distances (i.e. pre-determined time gap) between consecutive vehicles. It has the potential to increase the capacity of the road as well as reduce the consumed fuel. In this paper, we use a fuel consumption model for internal combustion light-duty vehicles, electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, buses and trucks in order to determine and quantify the effects of platooning on a fleet fuel consumption. The results suggest that a reduction of up to 3%, 3.5%, 4.5 %, 10%, and 15% in fuel consumption can be achieved for internal combustion engine vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, electric vehicles, buses and trucks.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2020

The Future of Zero Energy Buildings: Produce, Respond, Regenerate: Preprint

The zero energy buildings concept is more than 20 years old, and the paradigm shift from buildings as energy consumers to buildings as energy producers is underway. Buildings also consume land and material resources, however, with attendant environmental impacts. Another paradigm is emerging: a built environment that produces energy and is environmentally responsive and regenerative. This paper investigates an updated framework for thinking about zero energy buildings that includes discussions of prioritizing renewables; determining on-site versus off-site generation; exploring how and when buildings should use energy; and balancing renewables, storage, and energy efficiency. Buildings are typically connected to the utility grid and the utility grid develops largely in response to the built environment. If more buildings’ real time electricity use aligned with renewable generation, more renewables would be added to the grid. Ultimately, the goal for zero energy buildings will be to use 100% renewables, 100% of the time, matching loads with energy storage and renewable generation at each discrete timestep over a year. This target is beyond the current zero energy definitions, which focus on an annual balance of renewable supply and energy demand and use the grid to “store” excess production to make up for hours without sufficient on-site renewable generation. This paper expands this upgraded concept and outlines simple metrics to evaluate the alignment of renewable sources and storage with building loads. This process can provide insights on building design considerations, including the use of flexible loads and optimal resource management.

ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATION↗

DOE OSTI2020

A Low-Power Time-to-Digital Converter for the CMS Endcap Timing Layer (ETL) Upgrade

We present the design and test results of a Time-to-Digital-Converter (TDC). The TDC will be a part of the readout ASIC, called ETROC, to read out Low-Gain Avalanche Detectors (LGADs) for the CMS Endcap Timing Layer (ETL) of High-Luminosity LHC upgrade. One of the challenges of the ETROC design is that the TDC is required to consume less than 200 W for each pixel at the nominal hit occupancy of 1%. To meet the low-power requirement, we use a single delay line for both the Time of Arrival (TOA) and the Time over Threshold (TOT) measurements without delay control. A double-strobe self-calibration scheme is used to compensate for process variation, temperature, and power supply voltage. The TDC is fabricated in a 65 nm CMOS technology. The overall performances of the TDC have been evaluated. The TOA has a bin size of 17.8 ps within its effective dynamic range of 11.6 ns. The effective measurement precision of the TOA is 5.6 ps and 9.9 ps with and without the nonlinearity correction, respectively. The TDC block consumes 97 W at the hit occupancy of 1%. Over a temperature range from 23 C to 78 C and a power supply voltage range from 1.05 V to 1.35 V (the nominal value of 1.20 V), the self-calibrated bin size of the TOA varies within 0.4%. The measured TDC performances meet the requirements except that more tests will be performed in the future to verify that the TDC complies with the radiation-tolerance specifications.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗