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DOE OSTI2022

Application of thermal energy storage with electrified heating and cooling in a cold climate

Ground source heat pumps (GSHPs) have been shown to be an effective means of decarbonizing building heating and cooling, but the operation of these systems at scale presents challenges to sites and the grid due to increases in peak demand. Here, in this study, we investigate how the use of Thermal Energy Storage (TES), in the form of stratified water storage, could reduce the peak daily demand associated with GSHP systems and thus improve their cost effectiveness. This system was compared to a Combined Heat and Power (CHP) plant, to investigate the potential cost and emissions impacts of electrification on large energy users transitioning from high efficiency fossil fuel equipment. This study builds on previous research by using a significant campus area, and investigating the various impacts of an electrified system versus a state of the art fossil fuel system. An established method of TRNSYS modeling is used for the heat pumps and borehole heat exchangers (BHEs), along with the TES. The GSHP system with TES is modeled to follow industry standards and sized to provide an optimal balance of capital and operating costs. Costs were investigated for a unique large energy user rate structure, as well as for a more common generalized rate structure. The results show that the addition of TES to the GSHP system could reduce operating costs by 4.5%, but still incurs a 5.64% cost increase from the baseline CHP system. It is also shown, however, that a tactical integration of heat pumps into the CHP system is the most cost effective solution, only increasing the operating costs by 4.71%. Likewise, the impacts of different rate structures are highlighted, with the TES only resulting in 0.75% cost savings under the generalized utility rate. Furthermore, it is shown that thermal storage has great potential for demand reduction, with the addition of storage incurring a decrease of 7–22% in annual peak demand kW, dependent on the rate structure.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2021

Superconducting Magnet Qualification Methodology for the Material Plasma Exposure Experiment

The Material Plasma Exposure eXperiment (MPEX), currently under design, is a new linear plasma device to advance the understanding of plasma-material interactions through the generation and delivery of plasmas as they are expected in future fusion reactor divertors. MPEX will be a steady-state device to study high-fluence exposures of plasma-facing materials and components. The requirements for the magnetic field at the target and the heating stages make the application of superconducting coils necessary. Conceptual designs for the superconducting magnets have been developed, and multiple cryostats with warm bore diameters of either 65 cm or 156 cm are envisioned to facilitate their integrated and timely assembly with other systems such as vacuum, water cooling, and RF power. Although design, fabrication, and testing for the magnets as stand-alone units are straightforward, challenges will arise during the integration of the system. Two different field profiles will be used during operation. The magnetic field where the electron cyclotron heating occurs needs to operate at both 1.25 and 2.5 T. It is critical that the magnets all share the same magnetic axis and alignment. The mutual inductance between cryostats will affect the quench behavior of the system. Also, cryostat-to-cryostat forces can be as large as 700 kN, and the magnitude and direction will change depending on which coils are energized. The design of the system must take those characteristics into account along with the quench scenarios. This paper describes the qualification approach that will be used to determine whether stand-alone tests can be used to ensure the success of the integrated system. Fiducials will be used to define the location of the magnetic axis for each cryostat to ensure proper alignment. Quench tests of a single magnet will be performed at a current above the normal operating current to account for additional stored energy from the mutual inductance to adjacent cryostats. Also, a 1018 steel plate will be mounted on either end of a cryostat to simulate the cryostat-to-cryostat forces. Requirements for the size and location of the steel plates are described.

Burkhardt, Earle↗

DOE OSTI2021

Phenomenon Identification and Ranking Table Analysis for Thermal Energy Storage Technologies Integration with Advanced Nuclear Reactors

This report provides an overview of the Phenomena Identification and Ranking Table (PIRT) analysis of thermal energy storage (TES) systems for possible integration with various types of advanced nuclear power plants (NPPs). Advanced NPPs will potentially need to operate in environments where power generation flexibility is more highly valued than the stability or baseload generation capability for conventional demand curves. TES systems would enable NPPs to respond nimbly to market variability and could also position advanced NPPs to participate differently in restructured markets, thus further enhancing their economic competitiveness. TES systems could also benefit the electric grid by eliminating the need for peaking plants, as well as by improving the economic performance of baseload NPPs. While TES technologies afford a unique opportunity to address many of these challenges, the applicability of these systems is also complicated by the fact that various advanced NPPs are designed differently, each with its own temperature range, size, operating fluids, and operating conditions. Hence, TES systems face significant barriers to investment, as more information on their compatibility and performance metrics is needed to quantify the advantages provided by each, as well as the challenges these technologies might face if coupled with a particular type of advanced NPP. This report explores the possibility of integrating a wide variety of TES technologies with various categories of advanced NPPs, based on their operating characteristics. To help users and developers decide which TES technology is best suited to a particular category of advanced NPPs, this research developed a PIRT of 10 TES systems that could potentially be coupled with advanced NPPs, which themselves are divided into nine categories based on their operating conditions. Each advanced NPP category is evaluated for compatibility with the 10 TES systems by assembling and discussing a database of information concerning 10 engineering questions (defined herein in as figures of merit [FOMs]), such as: technology readiness level (TRL), temperature compatibility, energy density, size, cycle frequency, ramp time, realignment frequency, geographic needs, environmental impact, and interventions. By assembling a database of information concerning the TES technologies’ compatibility with various advanced NPP systems, this study can help developers acquaint themselves with a particular TES technology before choosing to build a new integrated installation.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Recent Progress of JT-60SA Project toward Plasma Operation

Superconducting tokamak JT-60SA plays an essential role in fusion research and development by supporting and complementing ITER project, providing directions to the DEMO design activity and fostering next generation scientists and engineers. Since the incident of the Equilibrium Field coil #1 during the Integrated Commissioning (IC) in March 2021, both EU and JA Implementing agencies (IAs) have examined how to ensure safety operation of JT-60SA by mitigating the risk of possible discharge occurrence inside the cryostat. Based on the experience of the Global Paschen tests, the IAs have established a strategy of risk mitigation measures, which is a combination of (i) reinforcement of insulation, (ii) avoiding unnecessary voltage application to the coil systems and (iii) immediate de-energization of the coils when deteriorated vacuum condition is detected. Thanks to the considerable efforts of the Integrated Project Team (IPT) members, the IC restarted in May 2023. After the confirmation of superconducting state of coil systems (TF, EF and CS), the coil energization test and the plasma operation (OP-1) starts. The first plasma was successfully achieved on 23 October 2023 with a limited value of applied voltage and current to the coils. The plasma configuration control will be also confirmed with low plasma current and low auxiliary heating power conditions. Based on the IO-F4E-QST collaboration, activities of JT-60SA have been shared with the IO and provided an important lesson learned for ITER assembly and commissioning, and will provide an outstanding contribution to fusion research at large. After OP-1, Maintenance & Enhancement phase 1 (M/E-1) starts from January 2024, in which in-vessel components are installed, and heating system and diagnostic system are extensively upgraded to allow high power heating experiment planned in OP-2. In order to make the best use of JT-60SA, newly organized JT-60SA experiment team will refine the research plan in the future high heating power operation phase.

Broader Approach activities↗

DOE OSTI2020

Improved CO 2 utilization efficiency using membrane carbonation in outdoor raceways

Membrane carbonation, the delivery of CO 2 by diffusion through non-porous hollow fiber membranes, was successfully integrated into outdoor raceways (5.6 m 2 , 900 L) and operated continuously for up to 45 days. Biomass productivity associated with membrane carbonation was similar to using traditional sparging, but the average carbon utilization efficiencies for membrane carbonation was 3-fold higher than for sparging when 100% CO 2 was delivered to both systems. Here, when the pH setpoint was 8.5, growth on ammonium bicarbonate using membrane carbonation achieved a carbon utilization efficiency of 106 ± 45% due to uptake of some carbon from bicarbonate. Using nitrate as the N source had a 78 ± 55% carbon utilization efficiency, due to dissolved inorganic carbon accumulation as the medium alkalinity increased. Lowering the pH setpoint to 8.0 created a carbon-rich environment that decreased the carbon utilization efficiency to 51 ± 27% due to CO 2 off-gassing, but it still was 3-fold higher than with sparging.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

Shadow masks predictions in SPARC tokamak plasma-facing components using HEAT code and machine learning methods

Here, this work uses machine learning (ML) to complement HEAT (Heat flux Engineering Analysis Toolkit) by developing 3-D footprint surrogate models for fast and accurate heat load calculations in the divertor of the SPARC tokamak. The focus is on shadowed regions, or magnetic shadows, caused by the 3-D geometry of plasma-facing components (PFCs). ML classifiers are employed to create a surrogate model for HEAT generated shadow masks, predicting these shadow masks and divertor heat flux profiles based on a diverse range of equilibria and only the plasma current, safety factor(q95) at the edge, and magnetic flux angles as input parameters. The ultimate goal is to integrate the model for real-time control and future operational decisions.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2022

A case study of high-temperature polyetherimide film capacitor fabrication

Capacitors, as the basic building block of power electronics and electrical systems, are the major constraint of the increasingly integrated power systems that require new capable polymer dielectric films operating at higher temperatures >125 °C. Despite tremendous research efforts on the lab scale, there remains a considerable barrier and knowledge basis for converting polymeric films to functioning capacitors desired in actual applications. Here, the authors tackled the polyetherimide (PEI) film scale up issues and developed various engineering processes for film de-wrinkling, optimal metallization, static elimination, and capacitor fabrication improvement. The authors discovered various fabrication challenges such as the electrostatic charge, metallization scheme, winding tension, and end electrode disconnects. To fabricate a high yield of PEI capacitor bobbins, it is necessary to utilize static eliminators (radioactive ionizers), moderately thick aluminum metallization (15–30 Ω/sq), and winding tension (60–100 g). It is also effective to evaluate capacitance, dielectric loss, equivalent series resistance, and thermal cycling stability of capacitors. This work sheds some light on converting PEI films and other polymeric films to capacitors on a scale up fabrication effort. The practical learning from film handling to capacitor fabrication in this work provided the necessary knowledge for manufacturing high-temperature polar film capacitors.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2025

More land is needed for solar and wind infrastructure under a high renewables scenario in the Western US by 2050

Expanding United States electricity infrastructure to meet growing demand could require extensive power plant development footprints and land use conversion, depending on the mix of generation types chosen. Understanding where future power plant sitings are likely to take place and identifying potential conflicts and land-use tradeoffs will be key to identifying feasible and affordable investments and evaluating regional planning coordination needs. Here we use an integrated modeling framework that combines capacity expansion planning, hourly grid operations, and geospatial techno-economic analysis to develop projections (2025-2050) of power plant sitings in the Western United States (US) at a 1 km 2 resolution for a business-as-usual scenario and a high renewables penetration scenario. We find that 30% more land will be needed in the high renewables scenario as compared to business-as-usual, and that 75% of that development is projected to be located within 10 km of natural areas.

Mongird, Kendall [Pacific Northwest National Labor↗

DOE OSTI2022

Characterization of self-magnetic pinch (SMP) radiographic diode performance on RITS-6 at Sandia National Laboratories. I. Diode dynamics, DC heating to extend radiation pulse

Radiographic diodes focus on an intense electron beam to a small spot size to minimize the source area of energetic photons for radiographic interrogation. The self-magnetic pinch (SMP) diode has been developed as such a source and operated as a load for the six-cavity radiographic integrated test stand (RITS-6) inductive voltage adder driver. While experiments support the generally accepted conclusion that a 1:1 aspect diode (cathode diameter equals anode–cathode gap) delivers optimum SMP performance, such experiments also show that reducing the cathode diameter, while reducing spot size, also results in reduced radiation dose, by as much as 50%, and degraded shot reproducibility. Analysis of the effective electron impingement angle on the anode converter with time made possible by a newly developed dose-rate array diagnostic indicates that fast-developing oscillations of the angle are correlated with early termination of the radiation pulse on many of the smaller-diameter SMP shots. This behavior as a function of relative cathode size persists through experiments with output voltages and currents up to 11.5 MV and 225 kA, respectively, and with spot sizes below approximately few millimeters. Since simulations to date have not predicted such oscillatory behavior, considerable discussion of the angle behavior of SMP shots is made to lend credence to the inference. We report there is clear anecdotal evidence that DC heating of the SMP diode region leads to stabilization of this oscillatory behavior. This is the first of two papers on the performance of the SMP diode on the RITS-6 accelerator.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2024

Grid Integration of Offshore Wind Power: Standards, Control, Power Quality and Transmission

Offshore wind is expected to be a major player in the global efforts toward decarbonization, leading to exceptional changes in modern power systems. Understanding the impacts and capabilities of the relatively new and uniquely positioned assets in grids with high integration levels of inverter-based resources, however, is lacking, raising concerns about grid reliability, stability, power quality, and resilience, with the absence of updated grid codes to guide the massive deployment of offshore wind. To help fill the gap, this paper presents an overview of the state-of-the-art technologies of offshore wind power grid integration. First, the paper investigates the most current grid requirements for wind power plant integration, based on a harmonized European Network of Transmission System Operators (ENTSO-E) framework and notable international standards, and it illuminates future directions. The paper discusses the wind turbine and wind power plant control strategies, and new control approaches, such as grid-forming control, are presented in detail. The paper reviews recent research on the ancillary services that offshore wind power plants can potentially provide, which, when harmonized, will not only comply with regulations but also improve the value of the asset. The paper explores topics of wind power plant harmonics, reviewing the latest standards in detail and outlining mitigation methods. The paper also presents stability analysis methods for wind power plants, with discussions centered on validity and computational efficiency. Finally, the paper discusses wind power plant transmission solutions, with a focus on high-voltage direct-current topologies and controls.

17 WIND ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2020

Transforming the study of organisms: Phenomic data models and knowledge bases

The rapidly decreasing cost of gene sequencing has resulted in a deluge of genomic data from across the tree of life; however, outside a few model organism databases, genomic data are limited in their scientific impact because they are not accompanied by computable phenomic data. The majority of phenomic data are contained in countless small, heterogeneous phenotypic data sets that are very difficult or impossible to integrate at scale because of variable formats, lack of digitization, and linguistic problems. One powerful solution is to represent phenotypic data using data models with precise, computable semantics, but adoption of semantic standards for representing phenotypic data has been slow, especially in biodiversity and ecology. Some phenotypic and trait data are available in a semantic language from knowledge bases, but these are often not interoperable. In this review, we will compare and contrast existing ontology and data models, focusing on nonhuman phenotypes and traits. We discuss barriers to integration of phenotypic data and make recommendations for developing an operationally useful, semantically interoperable phenotypic data ecosystem.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

CCE Phase 4: Mitigations and Protections

During the first three phases, the CCE Team identified any instances of unverified trust in the organization’s technologies, processes, and procedures, any or all of which could be used to adversely impact the system. In Phase 4, the primary goal is to remove the possibility of the end effect—that is, to develop means or mechanisms that will ensure an adversary cannot achieve their Objective (identified in Phase 1) via cyber means. Such measures are known as “protections.” In some cases, this may not be possible, or the implementation of protections may not be desirable due to other considerations. In such cases, means and mechanisms should be developed that focus on putting an organization in a better position to identify adversary activities directed against it, increasing the cost of cyber-enabled sabotage for the adversary (including making things more difficult for the adversary and attempting to lower the chances an adversary may succeed), or decreasing the recovery cost of a victim organization. These measures are known as “mitigations.”

99 GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS↗

DOE OSTI2020

Mechanical and Thermophysical Properties of 3D-Printed SiC-FY20

In the Transformational Challenge Reactor (TCR), the fuel blocks consist of an additively-manufactured silicon carbide (SiC) matrix and uranium nitride tristructural isotropic (UN TRISO) fuel particles, which are stacked to form fuel columns. The SiC matrix is manufactured using binderjet 3D printing followed by loading the TRISO fuel particles and the chemical vapor infiltration (CVI) process. Because the fuel matrix is a primary component of the TCR core and its response to mechanical and thermal loads during operation is one of the most influential factors on the integrity of TCR core, testing and evaluation have focused on producing mechanical and thermophysical properties data for the binderjet/CVI SiC. Mechanical and thermophysical properties were measured from various types of specimens printed for two or three orientations, which included equibiaxial flexural failure strength, elastic constants, thermal diffusivity and conductivity, density, and the coefficient of thermal expansion. Flexural failure strength datasets showed similar Weibull distributions regardless of sample variants including different orientations. The mean failure strengths of the 3D-printed SiC variants were in the range of 286–306 MPa, which are 22–27% lower than that of the CVD SiC. Thermophysical test results showed that specific heat and thermal expansion are not sensitive to the build directions of SiC samples, while thermal diffusivity is highly dependent on the build direction and can be correlated to the anisotropic character of the 3D-printed SiC. This report also includes discussions on the uniaxial tensile properties of the as-printed SiC before CVI and on ongoing efforts for irradiation effects studies.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗

DOE OSTI2020

2019 Site Environmental Report (Volume 1)

Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) is managed on behalf of the Department of Energy (DOE) by Brookhaven Science Associates (BSA), a partnership between the Research Foundation for the State University of New York on behalf of Stony Brook University and Battelle. For over 70 years, the Laboratory has played a lead role in the DOE Science and Technology mission and continues to contribute to the DOE’s missions in energy resources, environmental quality, and national security. BNL manages its world-class scientific research with particular sensitivity to environmental issues and community concerns. The Laboratory’s Environmental, Safety, Security, and Health (ESSH) Policy reflects the commitment of BNL’s management to fully integrate environmental stewardship into all facets of its mission and operations. BNL prepares an annual Site Environmental Report (SER) in accordance with DOE Order 231.1B, Environment, Safety, and Health Reporting. The report is written to inform the public, regulators, employees, and other stakeholders of the Laboratory’s environmental performance during the calendar year in review. Volume I of the SER summarizes environmental data; environmental management performance; compliance with applicable DOE, federal, state, and local regulations; and performance in restoration and surveillance monitoring programs. BNL has prepared annual SERs since 1971 and has documented nearly all its environmental history since the Laboratory’s inception in 1947. Volume II of the SER, the Groundwater Status Report, is also prepared annually to report on the status of groundwater protection and restoration efforts. Volume II includes detailed technical summaries of groundwater data and treatment system operations and is intended for regulators and other technically oriented stakeholders. A summary of the information contained in Volume II is included in Chapter 7, Groundwater Protection, of this volume.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

Brief Update on Advancements by Commercial Vendors/Options for Feeding and Pumping Biomass Slurries for Hydrothermal Liquefaction

In 2011, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), working as a partner in the National Advanced Biofuels Consortium, issued a report assessing the viable industrial feed system and pump options for a 2000 dry metric tons per day production-scale hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) plant (Berglin et al. 2012). This report was issued as PNNL-21981, Review and Assessment of Commercial Vendors/Options for Feeding and Pumping Biomass Slurries for Hydrothermal Liquefaction, and will be referred to as “Pump Survey” for reference. It had the following scope: • Identify relevant applications and industries operating at comparable scales • Interact with commercial vendors and pursue integration between vendors • Take advantage of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) technology • Supply and support vendor needs for biomass feedstock rheology characterization • Provide vendors with process requirements to support selection of conceptual design for feedstock handing and pump system • Obtain cost data to the extent possible from equipment vendors to support the technical economic analysis (TEA) • Identify issues associated scale-up. The current document represents an update to the prior report in order to: 1. Identify advancements in vendor-reported technologies 2. List reports of new experience or trials with biomass pumping applications 3. Determine if technology/application gaps identified in the prior report have been filled 4. Capture ideas on future research.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2021

Electrification Futures Study: Operational Analysis of U.S. Power Systems with Increased Electrification and Demand-Side Flexibility

This report provides a high-resolution U.S. national-scale power systems assessment of scenarios with widespread electrification using detailed grid simulations. We find that high electrification scenarios envisioned in the Electrification Futures Study can be operated at the hourly level to meet future increased levels of electrified demand and, under the most aggressive cases, with up to 66% of generation from wind and solar technologies. The analysis also examines the value of flexibility from demand by supporting system operability under high electrification and high renewable systems. Demand-side flexibility—especially flexibility from newly electrified loads—is found to enhance the operational efficiency by reducing VRE curtailment and increasing utilization of generators with lower operating costs. It can also enhance the ability of electrification to decarbonize the energy sector.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Mechanical and Thermophysical Properties of 3D-Printed SiC before and after Neutron Irradiation – FY21

This report presents the mechanical and thermophysical properties of 3D-printed SiC before and after neutron irradiation that have been evaluated to assess the fuel matrix material for the Transformational Challenge Reactor (TCR). The TCR fuel form consists of an additively-manufactured silicon carbide (SiC) matrix and uranium nitride tristructural isotropic (UN TRISO) fuel particles, which is manufactured through a newly developed processing route combining binderjet 3D printing, TRISO fuel particle loading, and chemical vapor infiltration (CVI). Because the fuel matrix is a primary component of the TCR core and its response to mechanical and thermal loads during operation is one of the most influential factors on the integrity of TCR core, testing and evaluation have focused on producing mechanical and thermophysical properties data for the binderjet/CVI SiC. Baseline mechanical and thermophysical properties were measured from the disk specimens printed for different and sizes orientations, which included equibiaxial flexural failure strength, elastic constants, thermal diffusivity and conductivity, density, and the coefficient of thermal expansion. Flexural failure strength datasets showed similar Weibull distributions regardless of sample variants including different orientations. The mean failure strengths of the 3D-printed SiC variants were in the range of 280–310 MPa, which are slightly lower than that of the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) SiC. Thermophysical test results showed that specific heat and thermal expansion are not sensitive to the build direction of SiC samples, while thermal conductivity is highly dependent on the build direction and can be correlated to the anisotropic character of the 3D-printed SiC. Neutron irradiation tests were carried out on the 3D-printed 6-mm diameter SiC disk specimens. Irradiation was carried to 2.3 dpa over a temperature range of 360–880°C. No significant degradation in strength was observed in SiC after irradiations in various conditions and with different orientations. Anisotropy that had been observed in the thermal conductivity of 3D-printed SiC prior to irradiation vanished after irradiation as the irradiation defect thermal resistivity accumulated in the material. Electron microscopy of the microstructure after neutron irradiation showed distinct defect morphologies in the heterogenous material, but no evidence for irradiation-induced cracking or degradation in the microstructure was observed.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2023

Natural Gas Community of the Future (Final Report)

Nicor Gas, a subsidiary of Southern Company Gas and its parent company Southern Company, is developing the concept of the Carbon-neutral, Affordable, Resilient, and Equitable Community ("CARE Community") to address the challenges of accessibility and affordability of grid-interactive efficient buildings in historically disadvantaged communities. The CARE Community is a new construction net-zero energy and carbon neutral residential neighborhood consisting of 50 homes with electricity and natural gas services in South Suburban Chicago, built as low-income affordable housing. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) is assisting Southern Company to explore how energy efficiency, renewable technologies, and the reliability and resilience of natural gas can be combined and optimized in an islandable energy system as part of a broader effort to understand the role natural gas plays in future communities integrated with renewable energy and improved energy efficiency. The CARE Community will demonstrate how energy efficiency, distributed energy resources (DERs), and advanced controls can be combined with existing natural gas infrastructure to serve historically disadvantaged communities in a cold climate with low energy cost for affordable housing programs and enhanced resilience to withstand extreme weather. Homes will be a part of an islandable energy system, integrating multiple DER technologies such as solar panels, natural gas fuel cells, reciprocating natural gas engines, and battery storage. The CARE Community will provide a replicable template that affordable housing developers and energy companies can adopt throughout the United States. In this report, we present the design and modeling of the community and potential approaches for integrating DERs. We analyze and discuss annual simulations under normal operating conditions and week-long simulations under electric power grid outage conditions.

03 NATURAL GAS↗