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DOE OSTI2020

First Examination of Irradiated Fuel with Pulsed Neutrons at LANSCE (Preliminary Results)

We present preliminary results on the characterization of an irradiated U-lOZr-lPd fuel sample that was prepared from the irradiated AFC-3A-R5A sample. U-lOZr metallic fuels are researched as host materials for potential transmutation fuels and the addition of palladium strives to bind lanthanides, thus preventing fuel-cladding chemical interactions (FCCI). These interactions limit the lifetime of metallic fuels and are caused by migration of lanthanide fission products to the periphery of the fuel slug, where they start to interact with the D9 or HT9 steel cladding, ultimately leading to failure of the mechanical integrity of the cladding. Neutrons offer bulk characterization of irradiated materials for which X-ray tomography methods are not suitable due to the immense gamma background emitted from the samples. In particular pulsed neutrons provide information from the ability to resolve the neutron energy using their time-of-flight and thus the potential to utilize neutron absorption resonance to characterize the spatial distribution of isotopes. This, in turn, may allow to characterize the distribution of fission and neutron capture products non-destructively and may ultimately be applied to the bulk of an irradiation capsule prior to destructive post-irradiation examination to identify regions of interest. To allow the characterization of entire irradiation capsules, a cask is under development in the advanced post-irradiation work package at LANL and progress on this development was reported elsewhere. In parallel, an irradiated U-lOZr-lPd sample cut from the AFC-3AR5A irradiation was shipped to LANL and will be fully characterized with an NSUF funded rapid turnaround experiment (RTE) in the 2020 LANSCE run cycle. The sample emits at a dose rate of ~3R/hr on contact and is therefore manageable with remote handling, without requiring a cask. The disk-shaped material is larger than samples prepared for analysis using electron or X-ray methods and is therefore an intermediate step towards characterization of bulk samples at LANSCE. However, since it covers the full diameter of the irradiated fuel slug, some insight on redistribution of elements, spatially resolved information on microstructure, e.g. phase composition and texture, will be possible using the pulsed neutron-based methods developed for fuel characterization at LANSCE. This report describes the development of procedures to handle the sample at LANSCE as well as preliminary data and results from tests conducted in December 2019 on the energy-resolved neutron imaging (ERNI) beam line at flight path 5 and the high pressure-preferred orientation diffractometer (HIPPO) at LANSCE. This effort is a collaboration between LANL, INL, and ORNL. To compare our capabilities with prior work, we present an overview of previously reported bulk characterization of irradiated or spent fuels. The overview addresses neutron diffraction and neutron absorption resonance spectroscopy, both of which have only few reported applications on irradiated or spent nuclear fuel, as well as neutron radiography. This literature review was already described in a previous report but is repeated here to put our current efforts in context of previous work.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

NASA NTRS1982

Integration of Fish and Wildlife Data with Geobased and Remotely Sensed Land Use/land Cover Data: a Demonstration Using Sites in Pennsylvania

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service developed a statewide fish and wildlife data base for the Pennsylvania Game Commission that includes 125 categories of information on each of the 844 species. This species data base is integrated with geobased and remotely-sensed land use/land cover data from two sites in Pennsylvania. One site is an energy development project; the other is a high-energy use area. Analyses using the combined animal and land use data bases can be demonstrated for a variety of land use/land cover types at both sites. The ability to make "what if" analysis prior to project implementation is presented.

Cushwa, C. T.↗

DOE OSTI2022

Hydrogen bond arrangements in (H 2 O) 20, 24, 28 clathrate hydrate cages: Optimization and many-body analysis

Here we provide a detailed study of hydrogen bonding arrangements, relative stability, residual entropy, and an analysis of the many-body effects in the (H 2 O) 20 (D-cage), (H 2 O) 24 (T-cage), and (H 2 O) 28 (H-cage) hollow cages making up structures I (sI) and II (sII) of clathrate hydrate lattices. Based on the enumeration of the possible hydrogen bonding networks for a fixed oxygen atom scaffold, the residual entropy (S 0 ) of these three gas phase cages was estimated at 0.754 82, 0.754 44, and 0.754 17 · Nk b , where N is the number of molecules and k b is Boltzmann’s constant. A previously identified descriptor of enhanced stability based on the relative arrangement and connectivity of nearest-neighbor fragments on the polyhedral water cluster [strong-weak-effective-bond model] also applies to the larger hollow cages. The three cages contain a maximum of 7, 9, and 11 such preferable arrangements of trans nearest dimer pairs with one “free” OH bond on the donor molecule (t1d dimers). The Many-Body Expansion (MBE) up to the 4-body suggests that the many-body terms vary nearly linearly with the cluster binding energy. Using a hierarchical approach of screening the relative stability of networks starting from optimizations with the TIP4P, TTM2.1-F, and MB-pol classical potentials, subsequently refining at more accurate levels of electronic structure theory (DFT and MP2), and finally correcting for zero-point energy, we were able to identify a group of four low-lying isomers of the (H 2 O) 24 T-cage, two of which are antisymmetric and the other two form a pair of antipode configurations.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2020

Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum Applications on a Pathfinder System

Work performed under this one-year LDRD was concerned with estimating resource requirements for small quantum test beds that are expected to be available in the near future. This work represents a preliminary demonstration of our ability to leverage quantum hardware for solving small quantum simulation problems in areas of interest to the DOE. The algorithms enabling such studies are hybrid quantum-classical variational algorithms, in particular the widely-used variational quantum eigensolver (VQE). Employing this hybrid algorithm, in which the quantum computer complements the classical one, we implemented an end-to-end application-level toolchain that allows the user to specify a molecule of interest and compute the ground state energy using the VQE approach. We found significant limitations attributable to the classical portion of the hybrid system, including a greater than greater-than-quartic power scaling of the classical memory requirements with the system size. Current VQE approaches would require an exascale machine for solving any molecule with size greater than 150 nuclei. Our findings include several improvements that we implemented into the VQE toolchain, including a new classical optimizer that is decades old but hadn't been considered before in the VQE ecosystem. Our findings suggest limitations to variational hybrid approaches to simulation that further motivate the need for a gate-based fault-tolerant quantum processor that can implement larger problems using the fully digital quantum phase estimation algorithm.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗

NASA NTRS2013

Normalization of Impact Energy by Laminate Thickness for Compression After Impact Testing

The amount of impact energy used to damage a composite laminate is a critical parameter when assessing residual strength properties. The compression after impact (CAI) strength of impacted laminates is dependent upon how thick the laminate is and this has traditionally been accounted for by normalizing (dividing) the impact energy by the laminate's thickness. However, when comparing CAI strength values for a given lay-up sequence and fiber/resin system, dividing the impact energy by the specimen thickness has been noted by the author to give higher CAI strength values for thicker laminates. A study was thus undertaken to assess the comparability of CAI strength data by normalizing the impact energy by the specimen thickness raised to a power to account for the higher strength of thicker laminates. One set of data from the literature and two generated in this study were analyzed by dividing the impact energy by the specimen thickness to the 1, 1.5, 2, and 2.5 powers. Results show that as laminate thickness and damage severity decreased, the value which the laminate thickness needs to be raised to in order to yield more comparable CAI data increases.

Nettles, A. T.↗

DOE OSTI2022

NCSU Industrial Assessment Center

Renewable energy technologies are becoming more attractive and gaining more attention as the world becomes increasingly aware of the negative impacts of global warming and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Two such emerging technologies are geothermal heat pumps (GHP) and solar thermal heating which can be used for heating and cooling of buildings. GHP systems are a well-studied technology that have been proven to be more efficient than traditional air-source heat pumps for space conditioning of buildings. Solar thermal heating has become more common as a way to heat domestic hot water (DHW) in homes, but the two technologies are not often combined. This study presents the findings of combining an open-loop GHP with 100 ft2 of flat plate solar thermal panels and a 5,655-gallon sensible water storage tank for space heating and DHW heating needs of a residential home in Bozeman, MT, USA. The goal of this system was to use energy from the solar panels and storage tank first to decrease pumping energy from the GHP well. The open loop system was designed to be a backup system to the solar thermal panels and sensible storage tank. An actual home was modeled to determine potential energy and cost savings of such a system compared to a traditional propane boiler. Then, a case study was performed on the installed system from January to June 2021. Results obtained from April 2nd to June 5th, 2021 indicated that the combination system supplied all necessary heat, and that heat was supplied from the thermal storage tank 55% of the time. This represents a savings of 330 kWh of energy and $36 compared to operating just the open loop geothermal system. From April 2nd to June 5th the combination system consumed a total of 2,510 kWh of energy and cost $274 to operate. Based on data obtained, there is significant potential for energy savings compared to a propane boiler, however only small potential for cost savings.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2020

Quantifying Thermal Performance of the Building Envelope - Beyond Common Practice

Performance metrics serve as useful tools and indicators for many applications. For the building industry, various metrics exist; typically, these metrics do not assess the whole building performance. Instead, these represent separate components or heat transfer mechanisms of a building like R-value, U-factor/value, and airtightness. The mechanisms defined under these metrics all contribute significantly to the overall thermal performance of a building but will rarely act independently. There are metrics that account for the overall energy performance of a building, such as Energy Use Intensity (EUI). However, these metrics tend to be highly influenced by how the building is operated and used. There are also metrics which provide assessment on a relative basis. These indices are based upon comparison to a baseline, which complicates meaningful metric-based energy analyses. This paper presents a performance metric developed to account for various thermal properties and behaviors of a building. The metric accounts for all the relevant mechanisms that influence heat losses and gains in buildings and is thus directly related to the energy performance. In addition, the metric is designed to comprise air infiltration and allows users to account for workmanship quality, and imperfections of the building thermal resistance due to penetrations and other installations. This paper will describe how the metric can be applied for various building types and in different climates.

Pallin, Simon B.↗

DOE OSTI2022

Public – Private Partnership to Promote Efficient Manufacturing and Workforce Development (IAC Final Technical Report)

Through delivering ninety (90) energy assessments to small- and medium-sized manufacturing facilities in and around Tennessee, significant understandings were gained through providing detailed energy assessment reports to manufacturers and training seventy-seven (77) engineering students in which thirty-five (35) certified IAC students were recognized by DOE. The robust involvement of Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), local utility and Tennessee Tech’s Cybersecurity Education, Research, and Outreach Center (CEROC) in majority of assessments made the technical operation very effective where leaded to 40.5% implementation rate of energy recommendations. Other benefits of the award to the public are a dynamic modeling tool capable of analyzing existing cooling towers for energy use optimization was developed and presented to DOE IAC, providing technical assistance to non-participating manufacturers in the form of workshop and training, publishing fifteen (15) peer-reviewed conference and journal papers as well as a book chapter in the area of industrial energy efficiency field, assisting the TVA Magnolia Combined Cycle Power Plant to become the First 50001 Ready Certified Power Plant in the U.S. through briefing them on ISO 50001 and 50001 Ready as well as providing an energy assessment to the plant, assisted the new IAC center at Clemson University with on-site and remote support, and provided assessment and training in unique areas of water, waste water, cyber security and smart manufacturing to our clients, students and community.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2025

Clean Cities and Communities Partnership 2023 Activity Report

This is the 2023 report for the Clean Cities and Communities (CC&C) partnership. It tracks the metrics that have been reported by individual coalitions and aggregated to the national level. It looks at the various outreach activities, grant activities, and implementation of clean transportation technologies. Such technologies include natural gas vehicles, electric vehicles, propane vehicles, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, biodiesel, ethanol, idle reduction technologies, fuel economy improvement technologies, vehicle-miles-traveled reduction technologies, and off-road technologies. The CC&C partnership had an energy use impact of over 1 billion gallons in 2023 and reduced emissions by nine million tons. Outreach, engagement, and training activities increased 18% from last year.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

NASA NTRS1999

Electron Microscopy and Image Analysis for Selected Materials

This particular project was completed in collaboration with the metallurgical diagnostics facility. The objective of this research had four major components. First, we required training in the operation of the environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) for imaging of selected materials including biological specimens. The types of materials range from cyanobacteria and diatoms to cloth, metals, sand, composites and other materials. Second, to obtain training in surface elemental analysis technology using energy dispersive x-ray (EDX) analysis, and in the preparation of x-ray maps of these same materials. Third, to provide training for the staff of the metallurgical diagnostics and failure analysis team in the area of image processing and image analysis technology using NIH Image software. Finally, we were to assist in the sample preparation, observing, imaging, and elemental analysis for Mr. Richard Hoover, one of NASA MSFC's solar physicists and Marshall's principal scientist for the agency-wide virtual Astrobiology Institute. These materials have been collected from various places around the world including the Fox Tunnel in Alaska, Siberia, Antarctica, ice core samples from near Lake Vostoc, thermal vents in the ocean floor, hot springs and many others. We were successful in our efforts to obtain high quality, high resolution images of various materials including selected biological ones. Surface analyses (EDX) and x-ray maps were easily prepared with this technology. We also discovered and used some applications for NIH Image software in the metallurgical diagnostics facility.

Williams, George↗

DOE OSTI2025

CFD Simulation of Aerobic Gas Fermentation to Enable Commercial Conversion of CO 2 into Aquaculture and Animal Feed: Cooperative Research and Development (Final Report)

NovoNutrients’ fermentation technology uses energy from hydrogen to transform industrial CO2 emissions into premium animal feed ingredients and other valuable products. A single NovoNutrients’ commercial manufacturing plant will capture and convert over 200,000 tons/yr of CO2 into over 100,000 tons/yr of high-protein feed. Key to the rapid and widespread deployment of the technology is maximization of its productivity and energy efficiency. Robust, physically based computational models of the technology will significantly increase productivity and efficiency, accelerating NovoNutrients’ technology to manufacturing scale. NREL has unique capabilities for creating and running such computational models. NREL's existing aerobic bioreaction computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models will be adapted to NovoNutrients’ gas fermentation (CO2, H2, O2) technology. The multiphysics CFD simulations require thousands of high-performance computing (HPC) node hours to simulate the complex geometries and contents of NovoNutrients’ industrial bioreactors. The experimentally validated CFD models were used to identify optimally efficient and productive bioreactor designs and operating conditions.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2022

Development of an Open-source Alloy Selection and Lifetime Assessment Tool for Structural Components in CSP

Lack of sufficient data on high temperature mechanical and corrosion behavior of structural materials is a huge barrier in the technological maturity of current and future Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) technologies. Rapid development and selection of materials cannot be achieved by expensive and time-consuming acquisition of experimental data. The goal of the proposed work is development of an open-source alloy selection and lifetime prediction tool that will integrate validated physics-based models to describe influence of temperature, alloy composition, environment and component geometry (thickness) on mechanical and corrosion behavior of Ni and Fe-based alloys employed in molten salts/sCO 2 heat exchangers. This one-year project leveraged the extensive dataset on the creep\corrosion behavior of candidate materials generated at ORNL through past projects and input from current collaborations with industrial partners. Based on previous experience and the feedback provided by industry (Brayton Energy and Echogen), three candidate materials of interest, Ni-based alloys 740H, 282 and 625 and application-specific operating conditions (max. temperature of 730 °C and stress of 150 MPa) were identified for the heat exchanger. An extensive corrosion and creep dataset was assimilated for the relevant operating conditions and was supported by detailed characterization of about 100 metallographic cross-sections. The corrosion dataset consisted of scanning electron microscopy images (secondary electron and backscatter electron), measured concentration profiles of alloying elements using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), widths of denuded zones (dissolution of strengthening phases) and depths of attack in molten KCl-MgCl 2 mixtures using image analyses. The creep dataset comprised of creep rupture data and creep strain curves (for 740H and 282). Coupled thermodynamic-kinetic microstructure-based models were employed to predict the stress-corrosion induced compositional and phase evolutions in the alloy during operation under the identified operating conditions. Reduced order models were developed from advanced physics-based models and were integrated in a user-friendly alloy selection tool. The corrosion model was able to predict the time to a critical Cr concentration at the oxide/alloy interface (chemical lifetime) within ±10% (1 standard deviation) of typical statistical variation in corrosion tests and EDS measurement errors (±0.5 wt%). The initial scope of the project was limited to predict creep rupture times (Larson-Miller parameter). Based on the input provided by industry, the mechanical lifetime of the heat exchanger is governed by accumulated creep strains (2%) rather than creep rupture. To be able to predict the times to specific creep strains, a more extensive creep model development was undertaken largely beyond the initial scope of the project. The continuum damage mechanics creep model was able to predict times to 2% creep strain, t 2% with an accuracy of ±500h. Ultimately, a screening protocol for SiC was generated to demonstrate the pathway for integration of one of the currently immature materials from a commercial adoption standpoint in the current material evaluation tool. The modeling tool developed here is accessible to the science community and stakeholders and lays the foundation for methods that will enable a rapid evaluation of optimum materials for CSP applications and reliable prediction of material degradation thereby considerably reducing operational costs, improving reliability and increasing overhaul intervals. However, the complete potential of such a tool to include a wider range of materials and test conditions can only be realized with a more concentrated combined experimental-characterization-computation effort.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Prism Assembly for Roman Space Telescope Wide Field Instrument Slit-less Spectroscopy

The Roman Space Telescope (RST) is a three mirror anastigmat design with a 2.4 m primary mirror. RST will be based in L2 orbit, from where it will provide science information on exoplanets and dark energy using the Coronagraph Instrument (CGI) and Wide Field Instrument (WFI). The WFI features a 300 megapixel near-infrared detector array which provides a field of view 100 times larger than that of Hubble Space Telescope. The Prism Assembly is a small add-on instrument to the Roman Space Telescope’s Wide Field Instrument (WFI), installed in a slot in WFI’s element wheel. The Prism assembly has a passband from 0.75 µm to 1.8 µm, enabling a survey of redshifts in the range 0.2 to 1.7 µm. It provides low resolution slit-less spectroscopy with a spectral resolution R > 70 for all wavelengths, and R < 170 for λ > 0.8 µm across the full field. The Prism Assembly has the potential to provide more supernova spectra than ground-based spectroscopy during the mission lifetime. Being a late add-on to the RST mission, the Prism Assembly has had restrictions on size, weight and geometry, and a challenging schedule, which has dictated much of the implementation. Despite these challenges, the Prism Assembly is a pocket-sized high-performance spectrographic element, implemented as a refractive, all-spherical optical design using only two elements, one S-TIH-1 glass and one CaF2. This presentation will give an overview of the Prism Assembly, from design and implementation, through alignment, test and calibration. (100 words): The Roman Space Telescope is a three mirror anastigmat design with a 2.4 m primary mirror, which will provide science information on dark energy and exoplanets. The Prism Assembly is a small add-on instrument to the telescope’s Wide Field Instrument, enabling low resolution slit-less spectroscopy with a spectral resolution 70 < R < 170 across the full field from λ= 0.75 µm to 1.8 µm. The Prism Assembly is a refractive, all-spherical optical design using a glass and a CaF2 element. This presentation will give an overview of the Prism Assembly, from design and implementation, through alignment, test and calibration.

Space Instrumentation↗

DOE OSTI2024

2020 U.S. Lighting Market Characterization

The Lighting Market Characterization report details how many lighting products (lamps and luminaires) were installed in the U.S. as of 2020, where they were installed, and how much energy they consumed. It also highlights key changes in U.S. lighting market characteristics between 2015 and 2020. This is the fourth edition of the LMC report; previous versions were released in 2002, 2012 and 2017. By publishing summary estimates of installed stock and energy use of various general illumination lighting products, these reports help DOE and others plan effective lighting research and development programs based on changing needs.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2024

2020 U.S. Lighting Market Characterization

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2021

Parsimonious Potential Energy Surface Expansions Using Dictionary Learning with Multipass Greedy Selection

Potential energy surfaces fit with basis set expansions have been shown to provide accurate representations of electronic energies and have enabled a variety of high-accuracy dynamics, kinetics, and spectroscopy applications. The number of terms in these expansions scales poorly with system size, a drawback that challenges their use for systems with more than similar to 10 atoms. A solution is presented here using dictionary learning. Subsets of the full set of conventional basis functions are optimized using a newly developed multipass greedy regression method inspired by forward and backward selection methods from the statistics, signal processing, and machine learning literatures. Here, the optimized representations have accuracies comparable to the full set but are 1 or more orders of magnitude smaller, and notably, the number of terms in the optimized multipass greedy expansions scales approximately linearly with the number of atoms.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

NASA NTRS2010

Effects of Solar Photovoltaic Panels on Roof Heat Transfer

Building Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) is a major contributor to urban energy use. In single story buildings with large surface area such as warehouses most of the heat enters through the roof. A rooftop modification that has not been examined experimentally is solar photovoltaic (PV) arrays. In California alone, several GW in residential and commercial rooftop PV are approved or in the planning stages. With the PV solar conversion efficiency ranging from 5-20% and a typical installed PV solar reflectance of 16-27%, 53-79% of the solar energy heats the panel. Most of this heat is then either transferred to the atmosphere or the building underneath. Consequently solar PV has indirect effects on roof heat transfer. The effect of rooftop PV systems on the building roof and indoor energy balance as well as their economic impacts on building HVAC costs have not been investigated. Roof calculator models currently do not account for rooftop modifications such as PV arrays. In this study, we report extensive measurements of a building containing a flush mount and a tilted solar PV array as well as exposed reference roof. Exterior air and surface temperature, wind speed, and solar radiation were measured and thermal infrared (TIR) images of the interior ceiling were taken. We found that in daytime the ceiling surface temperature under the PV arrays was significantly cooler than under the exposed roof. The maximum difference of 2.5 C was observed at around 1800h, close to typical time of peak energy demand. Conversely at night, the ceiling temperature under the PV arrays was warmer, especially for the array mounted flat onto the roof. A one dimensional conductive heat flux model was used to calculate the temperature profile through the roof. The heat flux into the bottom layer was used as an estimate of the heat flux into the building. The mean daytime heat flux (1200-2000 PST) under the exposed roof in the model was 14.0 Watts per square meter larger than under the tilted PV array. The maximum downward heat flux was 18.7 Watts per square meters for the exposed roof and 7.0 Watts per square meters under the tilted PV array, a 63% reduction due to the PV array. This study is unique as the impact of tilted and flush PV arrays could be compared against a typical exposed roof at the same roof for a commercial uninhabited building with exposed ceiling and consisting only of the building envelope. Our results indicate a more comfortable indoor environment in PV covered buildings without HVAC both in hotter and cooler seasons.

Dominguez, A.↗

DOE OSTI2026

A framework and calculator for evaluating the impacts of shelf life extension and other food loss and waste reduction technologies

Optimization of the food supply chain (FSC) depends on reducing food waste, especially at the consumer stage, where a substantial portion of food is not eaten, but instead disposed of via landfill, incineration, or in-sink disposals. One key strategy is to increase the time that consumers have before food goes bad or expires. This study developed a framework to assess the efficacy of shelf-life extension (SLE) technologies for mitigating food loss and waste (FLW), such as packaging improvements. The impact flows through the entire FSC, reducing FLW, energy use, and other inputs at each stage. The framework and resulting calculator can be used to evaluate the impact of FLW reduction at any stage for any food commodity. As shown by two SLE cases, the calculator is valuable for policy-makers, government entities, and professionals, specifically those in marketing, business development, and capital projects teams, to comprehensively evaluate the impacts of FLW reduction technologies and practices. The framework and calculator are sensitive to the shape of the consumption curve, the fraction of inedible waste, and the current shelf life. The calculator was used to assess the impacts of the United States goal of reducing food waste by consumers through various SLE lengths. It was found that uptake of several near-ready-to-deploy SLE technologies would reduce annual food production demand by about 10–19 MMT and supply chain energy consumption by 240–410 PJ in the United States.

Food loss and waste (FLW)↗