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Space transfer vehicle concepts and requirements. Volume 4: Summary of special studies

Our final report for Phase 1 addressed the future space transportation needs and requirements based on the current assets, at the time, and their evolution through technology/advanced development using a path and schedule that supported the world leadership role of the United States in a responsible and realistic financial forecast. Always, and foremost, the recommendations placed high values on the safety and success of missions both manned and unmanned through a total quality management philosophy at Martin Marietta. The second phase of the STV contract involved the use of Technical Directives (TD) to provide short-term support for specialized tasks as required by the COTR. Three of these tasks were performed in parallel with Phase 1. These tasks were the Liquid Acquisition Experiment (LACE), Liquid Reorientation Experiment (LIRE), and Expert System for Design, Operation, and Technology Studies (ESDOTS). The results of these TD's were reported in conjunction with the Phase 1 Final Report. Cost analysis of existing launch systems has demonstrated a need for a new upper stage that will increase America's competitiveness in the global launch services market. To provide a growth path of future exploration class STV's, near-term low-cost upper stages featuring modularity, portability, scalability, and evolvability must be developed. These recommendations define a program that: leverages ongoing activities to establish a new development environment, develop technologies that benefit the entire life cycle of a system, and result in a scalable hardware platform that provides a growth path to future upper stages.

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Technical Gap Assessment for Materials and Component Integrity Issues for Molten Salt Reactors

Material selection and qualification is an important consideration for the deployment of molten salt reactors (MSRs). This report summarizes the most important materials issues that must be considered for licensing MSRs. Because of the variety of MSR designs under consideration, this report considers materials for both fluoride and chloride applications, with both fast and thermal neutron spectra.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

Atmospheric Instrument Systems and Technology in the Goddard Earth Sciences Division

Studies of the Earth’s atmosphere require a comprehensive set of observations that rely on instruments flown on spacecraft, aircraft, and balloons as well as those deployed on the surface. Within NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) Earth Sciences Division-Atmospheres, laboratories and offices maintain an active program of instrument system development and observational studies that provide: 1) information leading to a basic understanding of atmospheric processes and their relationships with the Earth’s climate system, 2) prototypes for future flight instruments, 3) instruments to serve as calibration references for satellite missions, and 4) instruments for future field validation campaigns that support ongoing space missions. Our scientists participate in all aspects of instrument activity, including component and system design, calibration techniques, retrieval algorithm development, and data processing systems. The Atmospheres Program has well-equipped labs and test equipment to support the development and testing of instrument systems, such as a radiometric calibration and development facility to support the calibration of ultraviolet and visible (UV/VIS), space-borne solar backscatter instruments. This document summarizes the features and characteristics of 46 instrument systems that currently exist or are under development. The report is organized according to active, passive, or in situ remote sensing across the electromagnetic spectrum. Most of the systems are considered operational in that they have demonstrated performance in the field and are capable of being deployed on relatively short notice. Other systems are under study or of low technical readiness level (TRL). The systems described herein are designed mainly for surface or airborne platforms. However, two Cubesat systems also have been developed through collaborative efforts. The Solar Disk Sextant (SDS) is the single balloon-borne instrument. The lidar systems described herein are designed to retrieve clouds, aerosols, methane, water vapor pressure, temperature, and winds. Most of the lasers operate at some wavelength combination of 355, 532, and 1064 nm. The various systems provide high sensitivity measurements based on returns from backscatter or Raman scattering including intensity and polarization. Measurements of the frequency (Doppler) shift of light scattered from various atmospheric constitutes can also be made. Microwave sensors consist of both active (radar) and passive (radiometer) systems. These systems are important for studying processes involving water in various forms. The dielectric properties of water affect microwave brightness temperatures, which are used to retrieve atmospheric parameters such as rainfall rate and other key elements of the hydrological cycle. Atmosphere radar systems operate in the range from 9.6 GHz to 94 GHz and have measurement accuracies from -5 to 1 dBZ; radiometers operate in the 50 GHz to 874 GHz range with accuracies from 0.5 to 1 degree K; conical and cross-track scan modes are used. Our passive optical sensors, consisting of radiometers and spectrometers, collectively operate from the UV into the infrared. These systems measure energy fluxes and atmospheric parameters such as trace gases, aerosols, cloud properties, or altitude profiles of various species. Imager spatial resolution varies from 37 m to 400 m depending on altitude; spectral resolution is as small as 0.5 nm. Many of the airborne systems have been developed to fly on multiple aircraft.

Platnick, Steven E.↗

Management of the Cs/Sr Capsule Project at the Hanford Site. Technology Readiness Assessment Report

The Federal Project Director (FPD) for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Richland Operations Office (RL) Waste Management and D&D Division (WMD) requested a Technology Readiness Assessment (TRA) for the Management of the Cesium/Strontium Capsule Storage Project (MCSCP) at the Waste Encapsulation and Storage Facility (WESF) on the Hanford Site in Washington State. The MCSCP CD-1 TRA was performed by a team selected in collaboration between the Office of Environmental Management (EM) Chief Engineer (EM-3.3) and RL, WMD FPD. The TRA Team included subject matter and technical experts having experience in cask storage, process engineering, and system design who were independent of the MCSCP, and the team was led by the Director of Operations and Processes from the EM Chief Engineer's Office (EM-3.32). Movement of the Cs/Sr capsules to dry storage, based on information from the conceptual design, involves (1) capsule packaging, (2) capsule transfer, and (3) capsule storage. The project has developed a conceptual process, described in 30059-R-02, "NAC Conceptual Design Report for the Management of the Cesium and Strontium Capsules Project", which identifies the five major activities in the process to complete the transfer from storage pool to pad-mounted cask storage. The process, shown schematically in Figure 1, is comprised of the following process steps: (1) loading capsules into the UCS; (2) UCS processing; (3) UCS insertion into the TSC Basket; (4) cask transport from WESF to CSA and (5) extended storage at the CSA.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

Advanced Drying Cycle Simulator Thermal Response to Commercial Drying Conditions

The purpose of this report is to document updates on testing of the apparatus built to simulate commercial drying procedures for spent nuclear fuel at the Nuclear Energy Work Complex at Sandia National Laboratories. Validation of the extent of water removal in a dry spent nuclear fuel storage system based on drying procedures used at nuclear power plants is needed to close existing technical gaps. Operational conditions leading to incomplete drying may have potential impacts on the fuel, cladding, and other components in the system during subsequent storage and disposal. A general lack of data suitable for model validation of commercial nuclear canister drying processes necessitates well-designed investigations of drying process efficacy and water retention that incorporate relevant physics and well-controlled boundary conditions. This report documents testing updates for the Advanced Drying Cycle Simulator (ADCS). This apparatus was built to simulate commercial drying procedures and quantify the amount of residual water remaining in a pressurized water reactor (PWR) fuel assembly after drying. The ADCS was constructed with a prototypic 17×17 PWR fuel skeleton and waterproof heater rods to simulate decay heat. These waterproof heaters are the next generation design to heater rods developed and tested at Sandia National Laboratories in FY20. This report describes preliminary testing of the ADCS through measurement and analysis of the thermal response of the system to a subset of commercial drying conditions that exclude the introduction of water, namely simulated decay heats and pressures relevant to commercial drying. This test series, referred to as a “dry” test series in this report, spans three uniform waterproof heater rod powers (representing spent fuel decay heats), four helium fill pressures, and six vacuum levels. This test series was conducted to cover the range of expected ADCS testing conditions for upcoming “wet” testing, where water will be introduced and a simulated commercial drying cycle will be performed. The dry test conditions were derived from the commercial drying conditions seen in the High Burnup Demonstration and the vacuum drying conditions chosen for a smaller scale Dashpot Drying Apparatus tested at Sandia National Laboratories in FY22. For a given uniform power and pressure/vacuum level, the ADCS was operated at constant power and pressure and allowed to reach steady state conditions. The thermal data obtained from these tests were analyzed, and the results can inform computational models built to simulate commercial drying processes by providing baseline thermal data prior to the introduction of water. Following the preliminary dry tests, a test plan for the ADCS will be developed to implement a drying procedure that begins with the introduction of water to the system and is based on measurements from the drying process used for the High Burnup Demonstration Project. While applying power to the simulated fuel rods, this procedure is expected to consist of filling the ADCS vessel with water, draining the water with applied pressure and multiple helium blowdowns, evacuating additional water with a vacuum drying sequence at successively lower pressures, and backfilling the vessel with helium. Additional investigations are expected to feature failed fuel rod simulators with engineered cladding defects and guide tubes with obstructed dashpots to challenge the drying system with multiple water retention sites. The data from these investigations is expected to inform the efficacy of commercial drying operations through the quantification of residual water in a prototypic-length dry storage canister.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

Failure Analysis for Molten Salt Thermal Energy Storage Tanks for In-Service CSP Plants

Thermal Energy Storage (TES) is a fundamental component in concentrating solar power (CSP) plants to increase the plant's dispatchability, capacity factor, while reducing the levelized cost of electricity. In central receivers CSP plants, nitrate molten salts have been used for several years for operation temperatures of up to 565 degrees C. Despite many efforts to advance nitrate salt to higher operation temperatures (even considering a replacement with molten chloride salts) to achieve higher energy conversion efficiencies, the 565 degrees C temperature is currently considered the state-of-the art. Although molten salt tanks have been broadly deployed in commercial CSP plants worldwide, several failures have been reported in these tanks after a few months or years of operation, causing significant economic loss and mistrust in CSP technologies. Most of these failures are associated with the infancy of the technology and multiple issues related to tank design, fabrication, commissioning, and aggressive operation. A technical standard dedicated to the design and fabrication of molten nitrate TES tanks does not exist today. Current in-service molten salt tanks have been generally designed based on the American Petroleum Institute's (API) 650 and ASME Section II standards. The API 650 code provides guidelines for dimensions and fabrication for oil storage tanks up to 260 degrees C. The ASME standard provides allowable stress values for various materials at a range of temperatures and conditions. Both standards seem to be limited for molten salt TES tanks where high temperatures, thermal cycling, and transient conditions are expected. In 2020, NREL released the Concentrating Solar Power Best Practices Study (NREL/TP-5500-75763) that summarized multiple issues in CSP plants, along with potential alternatives and recommendations to address those issues based on information collected from participants representing about 80% of operating CSP plants in the world. One of the recommendations from this study was the development of accurate and validated models to evaluate the plant's transient operation, capable of capturing the effect of short-term clouds and operator response, while being flexible in being adapted to various spatial and temporal resource data. The "Failure Analysis for Molten Salt Thermal Energy Tanks for In-Service CSP Plants" project was inspired on this recommendation and was focused on (1) the development and validation of a physics-based model for a representative, commercial-scale molten salt tank, (2) performing simulations to evaluate the behavior of the tank as a function of typical plant operation conditions, (3) understanding tank failures mechanisms, (4) determining the residual stress and distortion in the tank floor after welding fabrication and evaluating their impact in the stresses developed in the tank during operation, (5) assessing the impact of key operation parameters on the temperature and stress distribution, (6) conduct a preliminary evaluation of design features to reduce stress and improve tank's reliability, and (7) estimate the tank's service life based on the stress developed under diverse operation scenarios. From the analysis conducted in the project and presented in this report, it was found that maximum stresses surpassing the yield strength point of the stainless steel (SS) 347H are developed on the tank floor near the perimeter. These large stresses are strongly influenced by the initial residual stresses and distortion of the tank floor after welding fabrication. During operation, large stresses are developed in the tank floor at high operation temperatures with large salt inventory levels during transient operation. High stresses are also related to elevated temperature gradients in the tank floor that could be attributed to insufficient mixing within the salt inflow and the salt inventory. Based on the analysis, creep is the predominant failure mechanism. However, the large stress levels could favor the plastic deformation into buckles, and crack formation due to stress relaxation cracking during cycle operation. A lifetime below 3 years was estimated for the typical plant operation conditions and a specific initial residual stress and deformation distribution of the tank floor. The estimated life agrees with the service time to failure reported in several commercial molten salt tanks. Desing and operation guidelines can be extracted from the analysis presented in this report, which could be adopted by tank manufacturers and CSP operators to advance toward an ultimate solution for tank failures by reducing residual and operational stresses to achieve a tank service life of more than 30 years. Addressing failures in molten salt TES tanks is fundamental for the CSP industry's survivability, but it is also important for other industrial and power generation applications using this technology, including nuclear and concentrating solar thermal.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

The LArIAT experiment at Fermilab

The LArIAT experiment at Fermilab is part of the International Neutrino program recently approved in the US. LArIAT aims to measure the main features of charged particles interactions in argon in the energy range (0.2 - 2.0 GeV) corresponding to the energy spectrum of the same particles when produced in a neutrino-argon interaction (neutrino energies of few GeV) typical of the short- and long-baseline neutrino beams of the Neutrino Program. Data collected from the 1 st Run are being analyzed for both Physics studies and a technical characterization of the scintillation light collection system. Furthermore, two analysis topics are reported: the method developed for charged pion cross section measurement, based on the specific features of the LArTPC, and the development and test of the LArIAT custom-designed cold front-end electronics for SiPM devices to collect LAr scintillation light.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗

University of Arizona High Energy Physics Program at the Cosmic Frontier 2014-2016

This is the final technical report from the University of Arizona High Energy Physics program at the Cosmic Frontier covering the period 2014-2016. The work aims to advance the understanding of dark energy using the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST). Progress on the engineering design of the power supplies for the LSST camera is discussed. A variety of contributions to photometric redshift measurement uncertainties were studied. The effect of the intergalactic medium on the photometric redshift of very distant galaxies was evaluated. Computer code was developed realizing the full chain of calculations needed to accurately and efficiently run large-scale simulations.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

Woody Feedstock 2018 State of Technology Report

The U.S. Department of Energy promotes production of advanced liquid transportation fuels from lignocellulosic biomass by funding fundamental and applied research that advances the state of technology (SOT). As part of its involvement with this overall mission, Idaho National Laboratory completes annual SOT reports for biomass feedstock logistics. The purpose of the SOTs are to provide the status of feedstock supply system technology development for biomass to biofuels, based on actual data and experimental results relative to technical targets and cost goals from specific design cases. The 2018 Woody Feedstock SOT has been separated into three individual thermochemical conversion pathways that utilize woody feedstocks: indirect liquefaction (IDL), catalytic fast pyrolysis (CFP), and algal-blend hydrothermal liquefaction (AHTL). The 2018 delivered cost for the feedstocks were found to be ${$}$63.76/dry ton, ${$}$87.82/dry ton and ${$}$70.31/dry ton, respectively (2016${$}$). In addition to the SOT analyses, projections for each pathway have been made for the year 2022. In 2022, the feedstock costs for IDL and AHTL are estimated to remain constant over the period, while the feedstock cost for CFP is projected to be reduced to ${$}$70.31/dry ton due to advancements in air classification and leaching, that will allow forest residue to be sufficiently cleaned to match or exceed the quality of clean pine.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

The Foundational Industry Energy Dataset: Unit-level Characterization and Derived Energy Estimates for Industrial Facilities in 2017

The Foundational Industry Energy Dataset (FIED) addresses several of the areas of growing disconnect between the demands of industrial energy analysis and the state of industrial energy data by providing unit-level characterization by facility. Each facility is identified by a unique registryID, based on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Facility Registry Service, and includes its coordinates and other geographic identifiers. Energy-using units are characterized by design capacity, as well as their estimated energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, and physical throughput using 2017 data from the EPA's National Emissions Inventory and Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program. An overview of the derivation methods is provided in a separate technical report which will be linked after publication. The Python code used to compile the dataset is available in a GitHub repository. An updated 2020 version is under development.

Array↗

Solar energy system performance evaluation: Seasonal report for Contemporary-Manchester, Manchester, New Hampshire

The operational and thermal performance of the solar energy system, Contemporary-Manchester, is described. The system was designed by Contemporary Systems Incorporated to provide space heating and domestic hot water preheating for a three story dwelling located on the New Hampshire Vocational Technical College campus, Manchester, New Hampshire. The net fossil energy savings for the period from March, 1979 to February, 1980 was 14.52 million Btu. However, the performance of the system must be degraded due to the fact that the building was unoccupied throughout the data assessment and analysis period. The unoccupied status prevented the normal adjustment of heating and ventilating controls for maintenance of comfort levels within the building. This lack of occupancy also prevented the typical family hot water usage, which would have allowed for more realistic evaluation of the hot water subsystem.

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Countermeasure Evaluation and Validation Project (CEVP) Database Requirement Documentation

The initial focus of the project by the JSC laboratories will be to develop, test and implement a standardized complement of integrated physiological test (Integrated Testing Regimen, ITR) that will examine both system and intersystem function, and will be used to validate and certify candidate countermeasures. The ITR will consist of medical requirements (MRs) and non-MR core ITR tests, and countermeasure-specific testing. Non-MR and countermeasure-specific test data will be archived in a database specific to the CEVP. Development of a CEVP Database will be critical to documenting the progress of candidate countermeasures. The goal of this work is a fully functional software system that will integrate computer-based data collection and storage with secure, efficient, and practical distribution of that data over the Internet. This system will provide the foundation of a new level of interagency and international cooperation for scientific experimentation and research, providing intramural, international, and extramural collaboration through management and distribution of the CEVP data. The research performed this summer includes the first phase of the project. The first phase of the project is a requirements analysis. This analysis will identify the expected behavior of the system under normal conditions and abnormal conditions; that could affect the system's ability to produce this behavior; and the internal features in the system needed to reduce the risk of unexpected or unwanted behaviors. The second phase of this project have also performed in this summer. The second phase of project is the design of data entry screen and data retrieval screen for a working model of the Ground Data Database. The final report provided the requirements for the CEVP system in a variety of ways, so that both the development team and JSC technical management have a thorough understanding of how the system is expected to behave.

Shin, Sung Y.↗

Laboratory for Atmospheres 2005 Technical Highlights

The 2005 Technical highlights describes the efforts of all members of the Laboratory for Atmospheres. Their dedication to advancing Earth Science through conducting research, developing and running models, designing instruments, managing projects, running field campaigns, and numerous other activities, is highlighted in this report.

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Laboratory for Atmospheres: 2006 Technical Highlights

The 2006 Technical Highlights describes the efforts of all members of the Laboratory for Atmospheres. Their dedication to advancing Earth science through conducting research, developing and running models, designing instruments, managing projects, running field campaigns, and numerous other activities, are highlighted in this report.

Stewart, Richard W.↗

Laboratory for Atmospheres 2007 Technical Highlights

The 2007 Technical Highlights describes the efforts of all members of the Laboratory for Atmospheres. Their dedication to advancing Earth Science through conducting research, developing and running models, designing instruments, managing projects, running field campaigns, and numerous other activities, is highlighted in this report.

Stewart, Richard W.↗

Laboratory for Atmospheres 2008 Technical Highlights

The 2008 Technical Highlights describes the efforts of all members of the Laboratory for Atmospheres. Their dedication to advancing Earth Science through conducting research, developing and running models, designing instruments, managing projects, running field campaigns, and numerous other activities, is highlighted in this report. The Laboratory for Atmospheres (Code 613) is part of the Earth Sciences Division (Code 610), formerly the Earth Sun Exploration Division, under the Sciences and Exploration Directorate (Code 600) based at NASA s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. In line with NASA s Exploration Initiative, the Laboratory executes a comprehensive research and technology development program dedicated to advancing knowledge and understanding of the atmospheres of Earth and other planets. The research program is aimed at understanding the influence of solar variability on the Earth s climate; predicting the weather and climate of Earth; understanding the structure, dynamics, and radiative properties of precipitation, clouds, and aerosols; understanding atmospheric chemistry, especially the role of natural and anthropogenic trace species on the ozone balance in the stratosphere and the troposphere; and advancing our understanding of physical properties of Earth s atmosphere. The research program identifies problems and requirements for atmospheric observations via satellite missions. Laboratory scientists conceive, design, develop, and implement ultraviolet, infrared, optical, radar, laser, and lidar technology for remote sensing of the atmosphere. Laboratory members conduct field measurements for satellite data calibration and validation, and carry out numerous modeling activities. These modeling activities include climate model simulations, modeling the chemistry and transport of trace species on regional-to-global scales, cloud-resolving models, and development of next-generation Earth system models. Interdisciplinary research is carried out in collaboration with other laboratories and research groups within the Earth Sciences Division, across the Sciences and Exploration Directorate, and with partners in universities and other Government agencies. The Laboratory for Atmospheres is a vital participant in NASA s research agenda. Our Laboratory often has relatively large programs, sizable satellite missions, and observational campaigns that require the cooperative and collaborative efforts of many scientists. We ensure an appropriate balance between our scientists responsibility for these large collaborative projects and their need for an active individual research agenda. This balance allows members of the Laboratory to continuously improve their scientific credentials. Members of the Laboratory interact with the general public to support a wide range of interests in the atmospheric sciences. Among other activities, the Laboratory raises the public s awareness of atmospheric science by presenting public lectures and demonstrations, by making scientific data available to wide audiences, by teaching, and by mentoring students and teachers. The Laboratory makes substantial efforts to attract new scientists to the various areas of atmospheric research. We strongly encourage the establishment of partnerships with Federal and state agencies that have operational responsibilities to promote the societal application of our science products. This report describes our role in NASA s mission, gives a broad description of our research, and summarizes our scientists major accomplishments during calendar year 2008. The report also contains useful information on human resources, scientific interactions, and outreach activities.

Cote, Charles E.↗

Laboratory for Atmospheres 2009 Technical Highlights

The 2009 Technical Highlights describes the efforts of all members of the Laboratory for Atmospheres. Their dedication to advancing Earth Science through conducting research, developing and running models, designing instruments, managing projects, running field campaigns, and numerous other activities, is highlighted in this report.

Cote, Charles E.↗

Laboratory for Atmospheres 2010 Technical Highlights

The 2010 Technical Highlights describes the efforts of all members of the Laboratory for Atmospheres. Their dedication to advancing Earth Science through conducting research, developing and running models, designing instruments, managing projects, running field campaigns, and numerous other activities, is highlighted in this report.

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