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NASA NTRS1978

The tektite problem

Small glassy pebbles, called tektites, are found in widely scattered locations around the world. These tektites appear much like volcanic glass obsidian, but their chemical composition is different from that of any terrestrial lava and they contain far less water and none of obsidian's characteristic microcrystals. No one has ever found the mother lode of a field of tektites. They cannot, therefore, be the product of terrestrial volcanism. Recently acquired knowledge about the moon's surface confirms earlier indications that tektites cannot be bits of lunar soil propelled to the earth by the impact of meteorites on the moon. According to one of two remaining possibilities tektites are bits of terrestrial sedimentary rock excavated by meteorites striking the earth's surface, melted by the heat of impact, and congealed into glass as they travel above the atmosphere to the scattered sites where they are found. The other possibility is that tektites are the remains of gobs of lava fired at the earth by volcanic activity on the moon.

Okeefe, J. A.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Volcanoes on the inner planets - Some preliminary comparisons of gross topography

The paper extends previous numerical work on analogs of planetary landform (Pike, 1974, 1978) by concentrating on volcanic edifices rather than impact craters. Two kinds of extraterrestrial volcanic constructs - domes on the lunar maria and calderas on Mars - are compared with terrestrial volcanoes. According to available data, neither type of landform unequivocally resembles a specific class of terrestrial volcano. The quantitative models of volcanoes presented necessarily are statistical because the shapes of volcanic landforms vary over a wide range of values.

Pike, R. J.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Composition and origin of the Apennine Bench Formation

Integration of stratigraphic relationships, geologic setting, surface morphology and remote sensing data suggest that the Apennine Bench Formation is composed of post-Imbrium basin volcanic KREEP basalt flows. This KREEP volcanism occurred shortly after the time of Imbrium basin formation and may have been triggered by the large basin impact which could have provided the structural 'plumbing' through which magma could reach the surface. There are indications that the Apennine Bench Formation may represent the largest surface exposure of highland (nonmare) volcanism preserved on the lunar surface and, as such, provides valuable insight into early lunar crustal processes.

Spudis, P. D.↗

NASA NTRS1979

Sulfur volcanoes on Io

Widespread volcanism on Jupiter's satellite Io, if it occurred over the age of the solar system, would quickly reduce the inventory of most common volatiles needed to drive such volcanism. One exception is the volatile element sulfur. It is therefore postulated that sulfur is the driving volatile for Ionian volcanism. Its presence is consistent with a carbonaceous-chondrite-like bulk composition for the original material that formed Io 4.5 billion years ago. The ubiquity of sulfur on Io today demonstrates the importance of this element in the processes that formed its surface.

Consolmagno, G. J.↗

NASA NTRS1979

Volcano-ice interactions on Mars

Central volcanic eruptions beneath terrestrial glaciers have built steep-sided, flat-topped mountains composed of pillow lava, glassy tuff, capping flows, and cones of basalt. Subglacial fissure eruptions produced ridges of similar composition. In some places the products from a number of subglacial vents have combined to form widespread deposits. The morphologies of these subglacial volcanoes are distinctive enough to allow their recognition at the resolutions characteristic of Viking orbiter imagery. Analogs to terrestrial subglacial volcanoes have been identified on the northern plains and near the south polar cap of Mars. The polar feature provides probable evidence of volcanic eruptions beneath polar ice. A mixed unit of rock and ice is postulated to have overlain portions of the northern plains, with eruptions into this ground ice having produced mountains and ridges analogous to those in Iceland. Subsequent breakdown of this unit due to ice melting revealed the volcanic features. Estimated heights of these landforms indicate that the ice-rich unit once ranged from approximately 100 to 1200 m thick.

Allen, C. C.↗

NASA NTRS1979

The structure and emplacement of cinder cone fields

The paper examines the structure and emplacement of cinder cone fields. Terrestrial cinder cone fields occur in volcanic provinces upon the flanks of major volcanoes or within relatively flat-lying volcanic fields. Measurements of cone shape and distribution were made in three volcano cone fields and three platform cone fields, and it was found that modal average values of cone basal diameter are on the order of 300 to 400 m within volcano cone fields and 900 to 1000 m within platform cone fields. The average morphometric parameters for the six fields indicate that cone diameter is positively correlated with cone separation distance, and that the size and spacing of cinder cones formed on the flanks of volcanoes is less than the size and spacing of cones constructed in volcanic fields.

Settle, M.↗

NASA NTRS1980

Genesis of the Smartville arc-ophiolite, Sierra Nevada foothills, California

Rare earth element analyses of metavolcanic rocks from the Smartville, Calif. ophiolite divide the uniform suite of pillowed and massive lavas into the lower part consisting of massive, brecciated tholeiites, an intrusive dike-sill complex, and part of a plutonic suite. The tholeiites are light REE depleted with a (Ce)N range of 6.5 to 26.0 and (Yb)N of 6.0 to 30.0; it is suggested that the tholeiites were produced by partial melting of a LREE depleted source similar to MORB. The upper part of the volcanic pile is comprised of basaltic-andesitic flows and interbedded coarse to fine volcanic sediments; these 'calc-alkaline' rocks are light REE enriched with the (Ce)N range of 17.0-28.0 and (Yb)N of 8.0 to 12.0. Finally, petrographic investigations of volcanic sediments and sulfide ore deposits in the lava show that the ophiolite formed near a group of active submarine and subareal volcanoes.

Menzies, M.↗

NASA NTRS1980

Lunar highland melt rocks - Chemistry, petrology and silicate mineralogy

A selected suite containing several of the largest samples of lunar highland melt rocks includes impact melt specimens (anorthositic gabbro, low-K Fra Mauro) and volcanic specimens (intermediate-K Fra Mauro). Although previous assumptions of LKFM volcanism have fallen into disfavor, no fatal arguments against this hypothesis have been presented, and the evidence of a possibly 'inherited igneous' olivine-plagioclase cosaturation provides cause for keeping a volcanic LKFM hypothesis viable. Comparisons of silicate mineralogy with melt rock compositions provide information on the specimen's composition and cooling history. Plagioclase-rock compositions can be matched to the experimentally determined equilibria for appropriate samples to identify melt rocks with refractory anorthitic clasts. Olivine-rock compositions indicate that melt rock vitrophyres precipitate anomalously Fe-rich olivine; the cause of this anomaly is not immediately evident. The Al-Ti and Ca-Fe-Mg zonation in pyroxene provide information on relative cooling rates of highland melt rocks, but Cr- and Al-content (where Al-rich low-Ca pyroxene cores are preserved in rapidly cooled samples) can be correlated with composition of the host rock.

Vaniman, D. T.↗

NASA NTRS1982

Airborne lidar measurements of the Soufriere eruption of 17 April 1979

At the time of the Soufriere, St. Vincent, volcanic eruption of April 17, 1979, a NASA P-3 aircraft with an uplooking lidar (light detection and ranging) system onboard was airborne 130 kilometers east of the island. Lidar measurements of the fresh volcanic ash were made approximately 2 hours after the eruption, 120 kilometers to the northeast and east. On the evening of April 18, the airborne lidar, on a southerly flight track, detected significant amounts of stratospheric material in layers at 16, 17, 18, and 19.5 kilometers. These data, and measurements to the north on April 19, indicate that the volcanic plume penetrated the stratosphere to an altitude of about 20 kilometers and moved south during the first 48 hours after the eruption.

Fuller, W. H., Jr.↗

NASA NTRS1982

Io - Geochemistry of sulfur

The evidence from Voyager imaging, Earth-based spectral reflectivity studies, and thermal emission measurements combine to suggest an extremely fresh, volcanically recycled sulfur-rich crust for Io, with very shallow large-scale melting. Two present styles of volcanism are possible, depending on the thickness of local deposits of sulfur: shallow liquid sulfur magma generation with quiescent flooding, and high-temperature volcanism with violet eruption of a sulfur-iron magma driven by SO2. Evolutionary considerations preclude direct derivation of Io's lithosphere from any metal-bearing chondritic source material. Metal-free C3V- or C2M-type parent material of either primary or secondary origin is the most plausible direct antecedent of the present sulfur-rich crust. Sulfates are almost certainly important constituents of the mantle, and can participate in the recycling of reduced, dense sulfide species to prevent total extraction of sulfur into the core.

Lewis, J. S.↗

NASA NTRS1982

Impact of Mount St. Helens eruption on hydrology and water quality

The 1980 eruptions of Mount St. Helens in southeast Washington resulted in a pronounced effect on the surface and ground water resources of the state. In response to the volcanic activity, the U.S. Geological Survey intensified statewide surface and ground water sampling programs to determine the nature and magnitude of the volcanic-induced variations. Streams to the east of Mount St. Helens received the major ash fallout. Chemical effects were best noted in smaller streams sampled 60 to 70 miles northeast of Mount St. Helens. The chemical variations observed were pronounced but short lived. Sulfate and chloride increases in anionic composition were prevalent immediately following the eruption; however, the original bicarbonate predominance was again attained within several days. Suspended iron and aluminum concentrations were similarly elevated during the period of greatest ash deposition (highest turbidity); however, the dissolved concentrations remained relatively constant. Depressions of pH were minor and short lived. Streams draining to the south, tributaries to the Columbia river, showed little observable changes in water chemistry. Streams draining to the west (Toutle river and its tributaries) were compositionally affected by the various volcanic activities. Chloride and sulfate anion percentage exceeded the bicarbonate percentage up to one month following the eruption period. Streams and lakes sampled in the immediate vicinity of Mount St. Helens, in addition to trace metals, contained organic compounds derived from decomposing wood buried in the debris deposits. This organic material may constitute a significant source of organic compounds to surface and ground water for some time to come.

Bonelli, J. E.↗

NASA NTRS1982

Measurements of stratospheric aerosols over Mauna Loa, Hawaii and Boulder, Colorado

The direct solar radiation transmission record at Mauna Loa, dating from 1958 to the present, revealed with remarkable precision the presence of stratospheric aerosol from volcanic activity. This record can be used to quantify the intensity of the stratospheric volcanic aerosol perturbation following a significant eruption in reference to the Agung event in 1963. The Mount St. Helens' stratospheric cloud was first detected by lidar at 18 km over Mauna Loa on 17 July. The atmospheric transmission was seen to decrease slightly after that time, but only a few tenths of 1 percent. Although it is still fairly early to draw a definite conclusion on the ultimate magnitude of the Mount St. Helens stratospheric aerosol from the Mauna Loa results, it can be stated that the stratospheric aerosol optical depth presently observed is comparable with that observed from Fuego which erupted in 1974. At Boulder, Colorado, the atmospheric debris from Mount St. Helens was observed by lidar on a number of occasions. Also, observations of the diffuse, total and direct transmission of solar radiation were made on June 3 and 4. The latter set of observations is useful for deriving information on the scattering properties of the volcanic cloud. The lidar and solar radiation data are presented and some of their special features are discussed.

Deluisi, J. J.↗

NASA NTRS1982

An incursion of dust in the southwestern United States from April 1980 eruptions of Mount St. Helens

An intrusion of volcanic dust occurred over the northern Mojave Desert, one month before the explosive eruption of 18 May 1980. Visibility was reduced to 15 to 30 miles during meteorological conditions that should have yielded a visibility in excess of 100 miles. This intrusion was documented by particle size distributions, scanning electron microscope analysis of Nuclepore filter samples, insolation measurements, observations by Navy and NASA aircraft, and meteorological data. No further incidents have been observed to date because of a lack of simultaneous volcanic activity with the particular wind patterns that existed in April. Therefore, under certain meteorological conditions, the desert of the southwestern United States could be significantly affected by volcanic ash from an eruption of Mount St. Helens.

Mathews, L. A.↗

NASA NTRS1982

The formulation of Lamb's Dust Veil Index

A catalog of the major explosive volcanic eruptions since 1500 AD and formulated the Dust Veil Index (DVI) is presented. The DVI quantifies the impact on the Earth's energy balance of changes in atmospheric composition due to explosive volcanic eruptions. The DVI for a particular eruption quantifies the climatic impact of the dust and aerosol injection from the eruption integrated over the years following the event. The formulation of the DVI is described. All references are to Lamb (1970). A distinction is made between the catalog of volcanic activity, and the tabulation of the northern hemisphere DVI apportioned over the years. The DVI data are updated to 1975 for any particular eruption, the catalog gives three DVI values: global, Southern Hemisphere, and Northern Hemisphere. The global DVI given in the catalog is considered. The other two DVIs relate to the impact on the hemispheres considered separately and their estimation involves an additional factor apportioning the dust veil between the hemispheres on the basis of the latitude of injection.

Kelly, P. M.↗

NASA NTRS1983

Stratigraphy and structural evolution of southern Mare Serenitatis - A reinterpretation based on Apollo Lunar Sounder Experiment data

Two subsurface reflecting horizons have been detected by the Apollo Lunar Sounder Experiment (ALSE) in the southern Mare Serenitatis which appear to be regolith layers more than 2 m thick, and are correlated with major stratigraphic boundaries in the southeastern Mare Serenitatis. The present stratigraphic boundaries in the southeastern Mare Serenitatis. The present analysis implies that the lower horizon represents the interface between the earliest mare unit and the modified Serenitatis basin material below. The depth of volcanic fill within Serenitatis is highly variable, with an average thickness of mare basalts under the ALSE ground track of 1.6 km. Comparisons with the Orientale basin topography suggests that a major increaae in load thickness could occur a few km basinward of the innermost extent of the traverse. The history of volcanic infilling of Mare Serenitatis was characterized by three major episodes of volcanism.

Sharpton, V. L.↗

NASA NTRS1983

Sighting of El Chichon sulfur dioxide clouds with the Nimbus 7 total ozone mapping spectrometer

The eruptions of El Chichon volcano on March 28 and April 3 and 4, 1982 were observed by the Nimbus 7 total ozone mapping spectrometer due to strong absorption by volcanic gases at the shortest wavelengths of the spectrometer (312.5 and 317.5 nm). These ultraviolet pictures permit a measurement of the volume, dispersion, and drift of volcanic gas clouds. The tropospheric clouds were rapidly dispersed in westerly winds while persistent stratospheric clouds drifted in easterly winds at speeds up to 13 m/sec. The spectral reflectance is consistent with sulfur dioxide absorption and rules out carbon disulfide as a major constituent. A preliminary estimate of the mass of sulfur dioxide deposited in the stratosphere by the large eruptions on April 3 and 4 is 3.3 million tons. Prior estimates of volcanic cloud volume were based on extrapolation of locally measured sulfur dioxide concentrations.

Krueger, A. J.↗

NASA NTRS1984

Recent comet impacts on the moon: The evidence from spectral reflectance studies

The results of analyses of near infrared reflectance spectra are inconsistent with numerous previous interpretations of the Reiner Gamma Formation. These include: (1) nue ardente or volcanic ash deposits, (2) volcanically derived sublimates, (3) high albedo volcanic deposits, and (4) highlands debris emplaced as impact ejecta. These results, strongly suggest that the selective preservation of high albedo features (formed by secondaries) by a local magnetic field enhancement is not a viable hypothesis. The results are generally consistent with, but place constraints on, the cometary impact hypothesis of Schultz and co-workers. While the presence of a magnetized component was not detected in either the bright or dark portions of the Reiner Gamma Formation, this material may be present in amounts under the current detection limits.

Hawke, B. R.↗

NASA NTRS1984

The 1950 sulfur flow of Mauna Loa: Considerations for Io

Some of the geological relationships observed in the Mauna Loa sulfur flow may apply in considering volcanic processes on Io. Given the presence of sulfur/sulfur compounds in the eruption plumes and on the surface of Io, it is likely that extensive secondary deposits of sulfur exist, some of which may be of fumarolic origin and analogous to the Mauna Loa deposit. Given the likelihood of silicate volcanism of Io based on the inferred material properties of some flows, and the attendant high temperatures for silicate volcanism, it is likely that the secondary surface deposits of sulfur would have been mobilized without being heated to the high viscosity stage. Mobilized sulfur flows on Io may flow long distances as a result of: (1) low viscosities in the melting range; (2) sustained effusion resulting from continued heating source area; (3) continued remobilization within the flow as a consequence of surges from the source; and (4) extension via lava tubes, or similar conduits through which there is little heat loss. Sulfur flows may form a relatively thin veneer over silicate flows and other surface units, given their fluidity and low mobilization temperature. Active splashing and splattering may spread sulfur over a wider area contributing the bright blooms observed in association with some Ionian flows.

Greeley, R.↗