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DOE OSTI2020

Exploring Ca–Ce–M–O (M = 3d Transition Metal) Oxide Perovskites for Solar Thermochemical Applications

Solar thermochemical (STC) processes hold promise as efficient ways to generate renewable fuels, fuel precursors, or chemical feedstocks using concentrated sunlight. Specifically, one actively researched approach is the two-step STC cycle, which uses a redox-active, off-stoichiometric, transition-metal oxide material to split water and/or CO 2 , generating H 2 and/or CO, respectively, or syngas (a combination of H 2 and CO). Identifying novel metal oxides that yield larger reduction extents (practically achievable off-stoichiometries) than the state-of-the-art CeO 2 is critical. Here, we explore the chemical space of Ca–Ce–M–O (M = 3d transition metal, except Cu and Zn) metal oxide perovskites, with Ca and/or Ce occupying the A site and M occupying the B site within an ABO 3 framework, as potential STC candidates. We use density functional theory (DFT)-based calculations and systematically evaluate the oxygen vacancy (VaO) formation energy (≈ enthalpy of reduction in an STC cycle), electronic properties, thermodynamic stability of CaMO 3 , CeMO 3 , and Ca 0.5 Ce 0.5 MO 3 perovskites, and the VaO formation energy within Ca 0.5 Ce 0.5 Ti 0.5 Mg 0.5 O 3 perovskite. We consider only Ca and/or Ce on the A site because of their similar size and the potential redox activity of Ce 4+ . If both Ce and M exhibit simultaneous reduction with Va O formation, the resulting perovskite could exhibit a larger entropy of reduction than a single cation reduction. The increased entropy produces increased reduction for fixed temperature, partial pressure of oxygen, and reduction enthalpy, and therefore increased STC efficiency. Importantly, we identify Ca 0.5 Ce 0.5 MnO 3 , Ca 0.5 Ce 0.5 FeO 3 , and Ca 0.5 Ce 0.5 VO 3 to be promising candidates based on their Va O formation energy and thermodynamic (meta)stability. Moreover, based on our calculated on-site magnetic moments, electron density of states, and electron density differences between pristine and defective structures, we find Ca 0.5 Ce 0.5 MnO 3 to exhibit simultaneous reduction of both Ce 4+ (A-site) and Mn 3+ (B-site), highlighting a particularly promising candidate for STC applications with a predicted higher entropy of reduction than CeO 2 . Lastly, we extract metrics that govern the trends in Va O formation energies, such as standard reduction potentials, and provide pointers for further experimental and theoretical studies, which will enable the design of improved materials for the STC cycle.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

NASA NTRS1993

Microbiological and corrosion analysis of three urine pretreatment regimes with titanium 6A1-4V

One objective of the water recovery test (WRT) performed at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) for the environmental control and life support systems (ECLSS) of Space Station Freedom is to determine the ability of the water recovery system to reclaim urine for crew reuse. In the process, raw urine is pretreated using a commercially available oxidant, Oxone (Dupont), and sulfuric acid (to reduce ammonia), and pumped into a urine processing subsystem. A combination of sodium hypochlorite and sulfuric acid were also considered as an alternative pretreatment. The ability of these pretreatments, plus a third pretreatment of ozone, to reduce microbial levels in urine generated during testing of the water recovery system at MSFC was examined. In addition, the corrosion rate of weld and base metal specimens of titanium 6A1-4V, a candidate material for the water system of Space Station Freedom, was monitored in the presence of these pretreatments. Specimen surfaces were examined at completion of the 21-day test using scanning electron microscopy. Change in pH, color, turbidity, and odor were recorded over the course of the test.

Huff, Timothy L.↗

DOE OSTI2023

Facile integration of giant exchange bias in Fe 5 Ge Te 2 / oxide heterostructures by atomic layer deposition

Exchange bias arises from the interfacial exchange coupling in ferromagnet-antiferromagnet bilayers and manifests as a horizontal shift of the magnetic hysteresis loop, constituting a critical component underpinning a broad range of magnetoresistive logic and memory devices. The facile implementation of exchange bias in van der Waals (vdW) magnets would be a key step towards practical devices for emerging vdW spintronics. Here, in this paper, we report an easy approach to establishing strong exchange bias in the vdW magnet Fe 5 GeTe 2 by a single-step process—atomic layer deposition (ALD) of oxides on Fe 5 GeTe 2 . We successfully created exchange bias of 300–1500 Oe in Fe 5 GeTe 2 /Al 2 O 3 , Fe 5 GeTe 2 /ZnO, and Fe 5 GeTe 2 /V 2 O 5 heterostructures, at 130 K. Control experiments showed that increasing the oxidant pulse duration in each ALD cycle or utilizing the stronger oxidant O 3 can enhance the exchange bias strength, revealing the key role of the ALD oxidants. Our systematic work elucidates the essential role of ALD-enabled oxidization of Fe 5 GeTe 2 in the formation of exchange bias, and establishes ALD of oxides as a facile, controllable, and generally effective approach to creating giant exchange bias in vdW magnets, representing an integral advance towards practical vdW spintronic devices.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2023

Piezo-electrocatalytic oxidation of methanol with UV-ozone treated wurtzite zinc oxide nanostructures

Leveraging mechanically-induced piezoelectric polarization, piezocatalysis emerges as a viable mechanism for enhancing the efficiency of catalytic processes. Nanostructured, catalytically active, rationally designed piezoelectric semiconductors can achieve high-performance catalysts for various applications using cost-effective electrocatalytic pathways, such as mechanical stimuli. We design and demonstrate for the first time a cost-effective, high-performance piezo-electrocatalyst for anodic methanol oxidation, which is crucial for the practical application and deployment of direct methanol fuel cells in a variety of emerging clean energy technologies. We synthesized wurtzite ZnO nanorods and nanosheets treated with UV-O 3 to characterize and compare their efficacy for piezo-electrocatalytic methanol oxidation. The generation of piezoelectric polarization charges in nanostructured semiconducting ZnO catalysts significantly increased their electrocatalytic performance. By elucidating the charge transfer between mechanically-deformed ZnO nanostructures and methanol molecules, we identified the underlying mechanism for the piezo-electrocatalytic process for methanol oxidation. The facile synthesis of high-quality ZnO nanostructures enables low-cost, scalable manufacture and direct integration into electrocatalysts whose performance could be enhanced by harvesting mechanical energy that would otherwise be wasted in the working environment.

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Modeling Evolvable Water Recovery Systems for Short and Long-Duration Missions in Partial Gravity

Water recovery technologies on the International Space Station (ISS) are designed and optimized for microgravity environments, thus creating a need for innovative systems optimized for mission operations in the presence of gravity. Alternative water recovery technologies under research by the Life Support Systems division were compiled into a series of Partial Gravity Water Recovery System (PGWRS) architectures. Individual unit processes were modeled via fundamental physical-chemical process equations to simulate their method of treatment, including chemical or biological oxidation, flash evaporation, filtration, or a combination of adsorption and ion exchange processes. Dimension and sizing data were then utilized to scale each architecture. Modeling was completed on an assortment of architectures assuming three scenarios in which treatment methods could take advantage of partial gravity: a short-duration mission with a temporary surface habitat, a longer duration mission with a more permanent habitat, and a long duration mission without resupply. Total system mass was estimated to quantitatively compare architectures within scenarios, but qualitative observations were also made regarding system robustness, flexibility, and capacity to meet more stringent demands. Technologies that traded most favorably between the scenarios were those that included a pre-oxidation stage to minimize mass loading to downstream absorption and ion exchange beds, exploited gravity in liquid-vapor separation processes, and reconstituted wastewater components into recyclable material streams.

Avery Carlson↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Modeling Evolvable Water Recovery Systems for Short and Long-Duration Missions in Partial Gravity

Avery L. Carlson↗

NASA NTRS1988

Grain boundary oxidation and low-cycle fatigue at elevated temperatures

Fatigue life consists of fatigue crack nucleation and propagation periods. In order to predict fatigue life accurately, a methodology for the quantitative assessment of these two fatigue damage processes had to be devised. Grain boundary oxidation penetrates faster than does oxidation within a grain. This faster oxidation penetration causes intergranular fatigue failures at elevated temperatures. Grain boundary oxidation accelerates both crack nucleation and propagation. Grain boundary oxidation kinetics and the statistical distribution of grain boundary oxide penetration depth were measured. Quantitative applications of the grain boundary oxidation kinetics to fatigue crack nucleation and propagation were analyzed. A method, based on the Weibull distribution, of extrapolating the laboratory oxidation data measured with small samples to large engineering structures is presented.

Liu, H. W.↗

NASA NTRS1997

New Potential Sources for Black Onaping Carbon

One intriguing and important issue of the Sudbury Structure concerns the source of the relatively large amount of C in the Onaping Formation Black member. This dilemma was recently addressed, and the conclusion was reached that an impactor could not have delivered all of the requisite C. Becker et al. have suggested that much of the C came from the impactor and reported the presence of interstellar He "caged" inside some fullerenes that may have survived the impact. So, conceivably, the C inventory in the Sudbury Structure comes from both target and impactor materials, although the known target rocks have little C. We discuss here the possibility of two terrestrial sources for at least some of the C: (1) impact evaporation/dissociation of C from carbonate target rocks and (2) the presence of heretofore-unrecognized C-rich (up to 26 wt%) siliceous "shale," fragments, which are found in the upper, reworked Black member. Experimental: Hypervelocity impact of a 0.635-diameter Al projectile into dolomite at 5.03 km/s (performed at the Ames Research Center vertical gun range) produced a thin, black layer (= 0.05 mm thick) that partially lined the crater and coated impactor remnants. Scanning electronic microscope (SEM) imagery shows this layer to be spongelike on a submicron scale and Auger spectroscopic analyses yield: 33% C, 22% Mg, 19% 0, and 9% Al (from the projectile). Elemental mapping shows that all of the available 0 is combined with Ca and Mg, Al is not oxidized, and C is in elemental form. Dissociation efficiency of C from CO2 is estimated to be <10% of crater volume. Raman spectroscopy indicates that the C is highly disorganized graphite. Another impact experiment [4] also produced highly disordered graphite from a limestone target (reducing collector), in addition to small amounts of diamond/lonsdaleite/chaoite (oxidizing collector). These experiments confirm the reduction of C from carbonates in impact vapor plumes. Observational: SEM observations and microprobe analyses of small, black shalelike inclusions in the upper Black Onaping indicate high C contents (7-26 wt% avg. = 16%). They contain mostly quartz and carbonaceous matter with small amounts of altered K-feldspar, clays, Fe oxide, and a sulfide. No evidence of shock is seen in quartz, and overall characteristics indicate a natural, lightly metamorphosed carbonaceous shale or mudstone that probably existed as a preimpact rock in the target region and distal fragments washed in during early crater filling. Fragments range in size from tens of microns to cm and increase in abundance in the upper Black toward the Onwatin contact, although their distribution is highly irregular. This increase corresponds to an increase in "organic" C with increasingly negative delta-13 C values and S, together with a decrease in fullerene abundance. In addition, we have found soot in acid-demineralized residues of the Onwatin but not in the Onaping samples. These data could be consistent with impact plume and atmospheric chemical processes, with possible diageneric ovedays. We are analyzing carbonaceous fractions of the Onaping and Onwatin to determine diagnostic C isotopic signatures Analyses by Whitehead et al. on bulk samples revealed no definitive source or processes, although delta-13 C values for "organic" C overlapped those for some meteorites. Discussion: If impact evaporation of Sudbury target carbonates did occur, then where are the carbonates? Distal carbonate (limestone/dolostone) exposures of the Espanola Formation (Huronian Supergroup) are generally thin-bedded, although remnants that partially encompass the Sudbury Crater are variable in thickness and may locally reach 250 m . If a carbonate thickness of 100-200 in existed at the target site, then copious amounts of C could have been reduced by impact processing of carbonates and also C-shale, depending on the efficiency of the processing and the amount of postimpact oxidation. Conclusion: The Sudbury crater offers a unique opportunity to study preserved characteristics of immediate carbonaceous fallback matter and particles of short-term residency in the impact plume as well as dust/aerosols from postimpact atmospheric processing.

Bunch, T. E.↗

DOE OSTI2022

Alkaline Oxidation of Lignin Using Reversibly-Soluble Bases

Production of oxidized aromatic monomers from lignin has been an intriguing process for decades, but widespread implementation has been inhibited by the high hydroxide:lignin ratios required for significant aldehyde yields. The high hydroxide loading in most scenarios renders the process uneconomical even for high-value products such as vanillin. In this work, we explore alkaline oxidation of a lignin-rich enzymatic hydrolysis residue isolated from corn stover, using alkaline earth metal hydroxides, such as Sr(OH)2 and Ba(OH)2 as base promoters. These materials are soluble at reaction temperature, but mostly insoluble at room temperature, allowing recovery and reuse by simple filtration. We show that monomer yields and profiles using these bases is similar to that obtained using NaOH as base, and that Sr(OH)2 can be recovered in yields above 90%. Preliminary TEA and LCA suggest that replacing NaOH with Sr(OH)2 can decrease monomer production costs by 40% and decrease global warming potential in lignin depolymerization by 30%, enabling a more economical and sustainable process.

alkaline oxidation↗

DOE OSTI2022

Volatile Products of the Autoxidation of Poly(ethylenimine) in CO 2 Sorbents

Poly(ethyleneimine) (PEI)-based CO 2 sorbents are a promising material class for use in CO 2 capture applications, particularly direct air capture (DAC), due to their high amine content and CO 2 capacities. The sorbent lifetime is a key uncertainty in the deployment of these materials in such applications, as they oxidize under conditions relevant to candidate DAC process cycles. Here, in this study, we utilize thermogravimetric analysis/differential scanning calorimetry/FTIR spectroscopy to characterize the nature, rate, and quantity of volatile species formed from the oxidation of PEI when supported on mesoporous Al 2 O 3 . We show that NH 3 , CO 2 , and H 2 O are primary volatile species formed from PEI oxidation and that their production rate matches the overall oxidation rate as measured via heat flow from a differential scanning calorimeter. We show that the total quantity of NH 3 evolved is consistent with terminal primary amines being cleaved from the polymer chain and that approximately one hydrogen atom per PEI repeat unit reacts to form H 2 O during the reaction. Finally, metadynamics and quantum chemical simulations performed on a simplified system are used to highlight the likely importance of radicals in the elementary reactions that comprise the oxidation reaction set. The findings here represent the first characterization of the volatile products from the oxidation of PEI in CO 2 sorbents and lead to a greater understanding of the mechanisms behind the oxidative degradation of these materials.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

NASA NTRS2018

Effect of Radiation on Biologically Active Glasses

Multifunctional hydroxyapatites single crystals have been studied for their applications as the laser host material since past several decades. It is only recently their potential has been evaluated for bioactive materials. In the past researches, Czochralski and flux growth methods have been utilized to achieve single crystals. We have used low temperature processing techniques for synthesis. Organic melt was used to achieve oriented fibers by the directional solidification method. This organic treated material has different characteristics than coarsened oxide materials. Our approach involved low temperature processing using nano engineered powders of the material system Na2O-K2O-CaO- MgO-SrO-SiO2. Also, borates were processed by sintering and grain growth. Effect of -ray was studied by measuring the electrical characteristics of radiated samples. Our experiments to further improve mechanical characteristics indicate that substitution of calcium with some other elements such as gallium have great potential to improve the radiation hardening and mechanical properties of bones.

Tufail, Areeba↗

NASA NTRS2004

Sulfur Cycling Mediates Calcium Carbonate Geochemistry in Modern Marine Stromatolites

Modem marine stromatolites forming in Highborne Cay, Exumas (Bahamas), contain microbial mats dominated by Schizothrix. Although saturating concentrations of Ca2+ and CO32- exist, microbes mediate CaCO3 precipitation. Cyanobacterial photosynthesis in these stromatolites aids calcium carbonate precipitation by removal of HS+ through CO2 use. Photorespiration and exopolymer production predominantly by oxygenic phototrophs fuel heterotrophic activity: aerobic respiration (approximately 60 umol/sq cm.h) and sulfate reduction (SR; 1.2 umol SO42-/sq cm.h) are the dominant C- consuming processes. Aerobic microbial respiration and the combination of SR and H2S oxidation both facilitate CaCO3 dissolution through H+ production. Aerobic respiration consumes much more C on an hourly basis, but duel fluctuating O2 and H2 depth profiles indicate that overall, SR consumes only slightly less (0.2-0.5) of the primary production. Moreover, due to low O2 concentrations when SR rates are peaking, reoxidation of the H2S formed is incomplete: both thiosulfate and polythionates are formed. The process of complete H2S oxidation yields H+. However, due to a low O2 concentration late in the day and relatively high O2 concentrations early in the following morning, a two-stage oxidation takes place: first, polythionates are formed from H2S, creating alkalinity which coincides with CaCO3 precipitation; secondly, oxidation of polythionates to sulfate yields acidity, resulting in dissolution, etc. Vertical profiles confirmed that the pH peaked late in the afternoon (greater than 8.8) and had the lowest values (less than 7.4) early in the morning. Thus, the effect of this S-cycling through alkalinity production, followed by acidification during H2S oxidation, results in a six times stronger fluctuation in acidity than photosynthesis plus aerobic respiration accomplish. This implies that anaerobic processes play a pivotal role in stromatolite formation.

Visscher, P. T.↗

DOE OSTI2023

Oxidation mechanism in a refractory multiple-principal-element alloy at high temperature

Refractory multiple-principal-element alloys (RMPEAs) are promising structural materials to enable increased power efficiency in high-temperature oxidation environments, but the oxidation behavior and microstructures of the oxides, especially at the beginning of the oxidation, have received limited attention. Here, the oxidation mechanism in an equimolar W-Mo-Ta-Nb-V was investigated at 1300 °C and compared with the equimolar W-Mo-Ta-Nb alloy without V. The oxide scale on WMoTaNbV after 1 min exposure is shown to be composed of a degradation layer at the interface of the alloy/oxide, an initial oxide transition layer, followed by the main phase aggregate oxide layer, and an outermost oxide layer. At the early stage of oxidation, the absorption of oxygen by the RMPEA substrate forms a solid solution. Vanadium accelerates the initial degradation process as it forms VO. The initial oxidation-induced degradation of RMPEA follows a sequence governed by the free energy change accompanied by local element segregation. Liquid V-Mo oxides aggregate in the intermediate oxide layer. The inward growth of the oxide scale is controlled by the local composition changes, the orientation of the substrate, the crystal structure, and physical properties such as melting points of the oxides.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2021

Mineralogy-dependent sulfide oxidation via polysulfide and thiosulfate pathways during weathering of mixed-sulfide bearing mine waste rock

Tracking the S oxidation pathway in sulfide-bearing mine waste-rock piles is complicated by variations in water content, O 2 and Fe 3+ concentrations, microbial diversity, mineralogy, the occurrence of a variety of S species associated with incomplete oxidation, and nonlinear coupling between physicochemical processes. Synchrotron-based S K-edge X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy facilitates the identification and quantification of S species (i.e., S 2– , $S_{2}O_{2}^{2–}$, S 8 , $S_{2}O_{3}^{2–}$, and $S_{2}O_{4}^{2–}$) in a weathered mine waste-rock pile containing pyrite, sphalerite, galena, pyrrhotite, and chalcopyrite. Mineralogy-dependent polysulfide and thiosulfate pathways both affect the S oxidation within the waste-rock pile. Currently, the polysulfide pathway, with S 8 as the intermediate S species, generates high concentrations of dissolved metals (from the rapid oxidation of monosulfides including sphalerite, galena, pyrrhotite, and chalcopyrite). As these monosulfides are depleted, the thiosulfate pathway of pyrite oxidation, including intermediate oxidation products (i.e., S 8 and $S_{2}O_{3}^{2–}$), will become the dominant oxidation pathway, resulting in the potential for generation of additional acidic drainage. This information highlights the importance of identifying the sulfide-mineral oxidation reaction pathways when attempting to estimate acid generation potential, and when developing remediation strategies for the storage and management of sulfide-bearing waste rock.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2022

Alkaline Oxidation of Lignin Using Reversibly-Soluble Bases

BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2026

Enabling Stable and Salt-Free Formic Acid Production via Reactive Interface Optimization in Forward-Bias Bipolar-Membrane CO2 Electrolyzers

Electrochemical conversion of CO2 to liquid products is limited by parasitic reactions that consume products and destabilize operation. Here, we show that salt-free formic acid synthesis in a forward-bias bipolar-membrane CO2 electrolyzer is governed by a coupled reaction-transport instability driven by parasitic anode formic acid oxidation. Operando mass spectrometry reveals that this process proceeds through CO-mediated poisoning, identifying catalyst tolerance to CO as a key descriptor of anode selectivity. Among the catalysts examined, PtRu/C preferentially promotes hydrogen oxidation over formic acid oxidation. Coupling this catalyst with transport-interface engineering improves product removal, enhances Faradaic and energy efficiency, and enables stable operation at 200 mA/cm2 for 190 h with a voltage decay of 0.64 mV/h. Techno-economic analysis indicates an 18% reduction in minimum selling price and highlights product concentration as the dominant cost lever. These results establish a general framework for suppressing product oxidation in liquid-product electrolyzers.

Hu, Leiming↗

DOE OSTI2022

Cold spray manufacturing of oxide-dispersion strengthened (ODS) steels using gas-atomized and ball-milled 14YWT powders

The cold spray deposition process has been investigated for the manufacture of 14YWT oxide-dispersion strengthened (ODS) steel, a nanostructured ferritic alloy (NFA), using gas-atomized and ball-milled feedstock powders. Cold spraying of the gas-atomized powder resulted in a thick dense deposit, but annealing them above 900 °C induced grain growth and heterogeneous precipitation of nanoparticles, thus resulting in lower hardness (~ 170 HV) compared to 14YWT ODS steel manufactured by the conventional method. The ball-milled powder (Fe-14Cr-3W-0.4Ti-0.2Y-0.125O) was cryomilled in liquid N 2 to achieve small particle sizes followed by annealing in a H 2 /Ar environment at 1000 °C and 1100 °C to reduce the hardness from ~ 8 GPa to ~ 5 GPa. Both smaller particle sizes and lower hardness of annealed powders made them amenable to the cold spray deposition process, resulting in thick and dense deposits, while retaining the favorable fully solutionized microstructure of the ball-milled powders. The microstructure of the as-deposited ODS exhibited very fine grain sizes (50–250 nm) with a uniform dispersion of Y-Ti-O nanoprecipitates in the ferritic steel matrix. The hardness values of the cold spray deposits using the powders annealed at 1000 °C and 1100 °C was 770 HV and 496 HV, respectively. Post-heat treatment of the as-deposited material up to 1100 °C showed a high-density microstructure with uniformly dispersed nanoscale oxide particles. The hardness of the annealed deposits up to 1000 °C had a notably higher hardness than bulk 14YWT ODS steel manufactured by conventional methods. The study demonstrates that cold spray deposition of the microstructurally-tailored feedstock powders can be used to successfully manufacture ODS steel with microstructure and properties comparable to those produced by the conventional methods, while providing for an attractive option for the more rapid and cost-effective manufacturing of ODS steel cladding tubes.

14YWT↗

DOE OSTI2019

Performance-advantaged ether diesel bioblendstock production by a priori design

Lignocellulosic biomass offers a renewable carbon source which can be anaerobically digested to produce short-chain carboxylic acids. Here, we assess fuel properties of oxygenates accessible from catalytic upgrading of these acids a priori for their potential to serve as diesel bioblendstocks. Ethers derived from C 2 and C 4 carboxylic acids are identified as advantaged fuel candidates with significantly improved ignition quality (>56% cetane number increase) and reduced sooting (>86% yield sooting index reduction) when compared to commercial petrodiesel. The prescreening process informed conversion pathway selection toward a C 11 branched ether, 4-butoxyheptane, which showed promise for fuel performance and health- and safety-related attributes. A continuous, solvent-free production process was then developed using metal oxide acidic catalysts to provide improved thermal stability, water tolerance, and yields. Liter-scale production of 4-butoxyheptane enabled fuel property testing to confirm predicted fuel properties, while incorporation into petrodiesel at 20 vol % demonstrated 10% improvement in ignition quality and 20% reduction in intrinsic sooting tendency. Storage stability of the pure bioblendstock and 20 vol % blend was confirmed with a common fuel antioxidant, as was compatibility with elastomeric components within existing engine and fueling infrastructure. Technoeconomic analysis of the conversion process identified major cost drivers to guide further research and development. Life-cycle analysis determined the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 50 to 271% relative to petrodiesel, depending on treatment of coproducts.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗