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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 1,279 records · Page 71
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2018

Multiscale Modeling of Supercritical Combustion with Two-Level Simulation on Adaptive Beamlets

Supercritical carbon dioxide (sCO 2 ) direct-powered turbine technology is a promising choice for the next generation of high-efficiency and low-emissions fossil fuel power systems. Breakthrough improvements in the design and development of the sCO 2 oxy-combustion devices are hampered by the lack of high-fidelity simulation tools suitable for the supercritical highly-CO 2 diluted reactive flow environment. The critically missing capabilities in many commercial and research codes exist due to the unaccounted effects of many nonlinearities, and the small-scale complex processes which become prominent at supercritical conditions. The present approach aims to address many shortcomings of the currently used models by adopting and generalizing a multiscale modeling concept of the Two-Level Simulation (TLS). In the TLS, all small-scale flow fields are simulated explicitly, albeit on one-dimensional (1D) domains -- beamlets represented by a collection of line segments embedded in a three-dimensional (3D) computational domain. In this research, we laid theoretical groundwork needed for application of the developed approach to variable density turbulent reacting flows and to sCO 2 combustors, in particular. The small-scale governing equations on the beamlets were introduced and analyzed by drawing a comparison with the supercritical Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) data sets to validate the TLS modeling assumptions. A series of the 2D DNS studies of premixed flame propagation in pipes, in a highly CO 2 -diluted environment, was performed in order to elucidate the effects of dilution on the laminar burning velocity, flame thickness, as well as on the dynamics and morphology of a corrugated flame front. The demonstrated approach could be applicable to high-fidelity modeling of other supercritical combustion devices including liquid rocket engines.

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗
DOE OSTI2017

Data Driven Smart Proxy for CFD: Application of Big Data Analytics & Machine Learning in Computational Fluid Dynamics (Part 1)

Simulation technologies can reduce the time and cost of the development and deployment of advanced technologies and allow rapid scale-up of these technologies for fossil fuel based energy systems. However, to ensure their usefulness in practice, the credibility of the simulations needs to be established with Uncertainty Quantification (UQ) methods. National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) has been applying non-intrusive UQ methodologies to categorize and quantify uncertainties in CFD simulations of gas-solid multiphase flows. To reduce the computational cost associated with gas-solid flow simulations required for UQ analysis, techniques commonly used in the area of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Data Mining (DM) are used to construct smart proxy models, which can reduce the computational cost of conducting large number of multiphase CFD simulations.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2016

The Future of Air Conditioning for Buildings

BTO works with researchers and industry to develop and deploy technologies that can substantially reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in residential and commercial buildings. Air conditioning systems in buildings contribute to GHG emissions both directly through refrigerant emissions, as well as indirectly through fossil fuel combustion for power generation. BTO promotes pre-competitive research and development on next-generation HVAC technologies that support the phase down of hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) production and consumption, as well as cost-effective energy efficiency improvements. DOE provides, with this report, a fact-based vision for the future of A/C use around the world. DOE intends for this vision to reflect a broad and balanced aggregation of perspectives. DOE brings together this content in an effort to support dialogue within the international community and help keep key facts and objectives at the forefront among the many important discussions.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2018

Enhancing Energy Systems Cybersecurity using Blockchain (SBIR Final Phase I Report)

The goal of this SBIR research has been to investigate blockchain technology and its applications in the fossil fuel sector - with a focus on how this technology could be leveraged to improve the cybersecurity of these systems. The primary tasks that we carried out involved evaluating existing blockchain technology, identifying relevant and compelling use cases, researching the integration of blockchain technology into industrial systems, and the design and implementation of a proof of concept system. A key finding is that within industrial systems where many parties are involved, trust can be lacking. By providing technology that assures verifiable trust in the data, many processes may be able to be automated. We believe that verifiable trust in the data can only be provided if we trust the data from "cradle to grave." This means that we need to secure the systems that are creating the data, moving the data, and storing the data. The last of these is provided by blockchain. Blockchain technology will not only improve security and trust within these systems, in some cases it will also be able increase the operational tempo of some processes significantly. We are vendors of commercial communications software that is based upon the Open Management Group (OMG) data distribution service (DDS) standard; it secures data in motion. In addition to many defense, transportation, and medical systems, it is running in oil, gas, and coal systems. Over the course of this effort we have come to believe that blockchain technology could be an important enabler for this sector: we have engaged with a number of our customers and identified several compelling use cases beyond cryptocurrencies, which we document further within this report. Furthermore, as it turns out, we believe that many of these use cases are relevant across a wide swath of industries. This analysis provides necessary and important foundational work that could lead to new ways of securing oil and gas processing, and coal mining infrastructure against cyber threats.

45 MILITARY TECHNOLOGY, WEAPONRY, AND NATIONAL DEF↗
DOE OSTI2018

Fouling-Resistant Membranes for Treating Concentrated Brines for Water Reuse in Advanced Energy Systems- Final Technical Report

The high total dissolved solids (TDS) levels in the wastewater quality generated from unconventional oil and gas development make the current state-of-the art approach to water treatment/disposal untenable. Our proposed membrane technology approach addresses the two major challenges associated with this water: 1) the membrane distillation process removes the high TDS content, which is often 8 times higher than that of seawater, and 2) our novel membrane coating prevents the formation of scale that would otherwise pose a significant operational hurdle. This is accomplished through next-generation electrically conductive membranes that mitigate fouling beyond what is currently possible, and allow for the flexibility to treat to the water to levels desirable for multiple reuse options, thus reducing fresh water withdrawal, all the way to direct disposal into the environment. The overall project objective was to demonstrate the efficacy of membrane distillation (MD) as a cost-savings technology to treat concentrated brines (such as, but not limited to, produced waters generated from fossil fuel extraction) that have high levels of TDS for beneficial water reuse in power production and other industrial operations as well as agricultural and municipal water uses. In addition, a novel fouling-resistant nanocomposite membrane was developed to reduce the need for chemicals to address membrane scaling due to the precipitation of divalent ions in high-TDS waters and improve overall MD performance via an electrically conductive membrane distillation process (ECMD). This anti-fouling membrane technology platform is based on incorporating carbon nanotubes (CNTs) into the surface layer of existing, commercially available MD membranes. The CNTs impart electrical conductivity to the membrane surface to prevent membrane scaling and fouling when an electrical potential is applied.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2016

On the Path to SunShot: Emerging Issues and Challenges in Integrating Solar with the Distribution System.

The U.S. Department of Energy launched the SunShot Initiative in 2011 with the goal of making solar electricity cost-competitive with conventionally generated electricity by 2020. At the time this meant reducing photovoltaic and concentrating solar power prices by approximately 75%— relative to 2010 costs—across the residential, commercial, and utility-scale sectors. To examine the implications of this ambitious goal, the Department of Energy’s Solar Energy Technologies Office (SETO) published the SunShot Vision Study in 2012. The study projected that achieving the SunShot price-reduction targets could result in solar meeting roughly 14% of U.S. electricity demand by 2030 and 27% by 2050—while reducing fossil fuel use, cutting emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants, creating solar-related jobs, and lowering consumer electricity bills.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2018

Prospective Costs, Benefits, and Impacts of U.S. Renewable Portfolio Standards

These slides were presented at a webinar on January 9, 2017. The slides overview a report that evaluates the future costs, benefits, and other impacts of renewable energy used to meet current state renewable portfolio standards (RPSs). It also examines a future scenario where RPSs are expanded. The analysis examines changes in electric system costs and retail electricity prices, which include all fixed and operating costs, including capital costs for all renewable, non-renewable, and supporting (e.g., transmission and storage) electric sector infrastructure; fossil fuel, uranium, and biomass fuel costs; and plant operations and maintenance expenditures. The analysis evaluates three specific benefits: air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and water use. It also analyzes two other impacts, renewable energy workforce and economic development, and natural gas price suppression. The analysis finds that the benefits or renewable energy used to meet RPS polices exceed the costs, even when considering the highest cost and lowest benefit outcomes.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2018

Final Technical Report DE-EE0006911 Vermont Solar Pathways

Solar PV is the fastest-growing form of energy in Vermont. From 2012 to 2017, Vermont’s solar energy capacity increased almost nine times to 227 MW, a compound annual growth rate of 54%. During this time, the portion of electricity from solar grew from 0.5% to 5%. The state is one of the national leaders in net metering, community solar, and solar jobs per capita. In 2011, the Vermont Comprehensive Energy Plan set a goal to have renewable energy supply 90% of the state’s total energy needs (including electricity, heating and cooling, and transportation) by 2050. The Department of Public Service completed a Total Energy Study to examine the feasibility and cost-effectiveness of various paths to the 90% goal and related emissions goals. The General Assembly created a Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) that includes credit for projects—such as electric vehicles and modern wood heating—that switch end uses away from fossil fuel, making the RPS essentially a total energy portfolio standard. Achieving the state’s energy goals will require major contributions from distributed resources and the development of supporting infrastructure such as energy storage, electric vehicle charging stations, and upgraded distribution systems. The Vermont Solar Pathways project used scenario modeling and stakeholder engagement to create a broadly supported plan to get 20% of the state’s electricity from solar by 2025. Scenario modeling provided numbers and graphs for examining issues, costs, and benefits, and spurred discussions at the 11 stakeholder meetings held over the course of the project. Stakeholders provided feedback to improve the model and made suggestions for variations on the scenarios.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2018

Chicago Climate Action Plan Advanced Transportation Technologies Initiative: Final Project Report

The Chicago Department of Transportation (CDOT) and our partners, I-GO Carshare and the Chicago Department of Fleet and Facility Management teamed up in support of our mutual goal of advancing the local electric vehicle market and demonstrating electrification of fleet vehicles. By increasing the use of electric and hybrid-electric vehicles this project provides a public benefit by reducing harmful emissions and the transportation sector’s dependence on petroleum in Chicago. The Chicago Climate Action Plan (CCAP) is the climate change mitigation and adaptation strategy adopted by the City of Chicago (City). CCAP calls for improved fleet efficiency, reduced fossil fuel use, and encourages vehicle electrification to reduce emissions from the transportation sector. Alternative fuels and advanced vehicle technologies play a critical role in helping the City achieve CCAP’s goals. In fact, CCAP calls for a 10 percent increase in the use of alternative fuel vehicles in Chicago by 2020.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2018

Advanced Control Architecture and Sensor Information Development for Process Automation, Optimization, and Imaging of Chemical Looping Systems

The Syngas Chemical Looping (SCL) process developed at The Ohio State University (OSU) uses an iron-based oxygen carrier to convert syngas into high-purity hydrogen while simultaneously capturing carbon dioxide that is readily sequestrable. A 25 kWth sub-pilot unit was successfully demonstrated multiple times on the OSU Clean Coal Research Facility, and a 250 kWth – 3 MWth pilot demonstration unit has been designed and constructed at the National Carbon Capture Center (NCCC) in Wilsonville, Alabama. The focus of this project is to develop multiple technologies to automate the startup and shutdown of chemical looping system. Success of this project will propel the advanced carbon capture method toward commercialization, hence be disruptive to the fossil fuel and power industries. Advanced process automation control architecture and imaging and optimization sensor software were developed for OSU chemical looping process. A high-level controller (HLC) consisting of decision-making and controller-selection logic integrated with sliding mode controllers (SMCs) were developed to perform chemical looping process startup and shutdown. Babcock & Wilcox Power Generation Group’s FocalPoint Optimization System was implemented to optimize the process operating conditions. The process automation controller and optimization information were realized and tested on OSU’s existing sub-pilot chemical looping test unit under atmospheric condition. The implemented control architecture was able to perform the complete process procedure from startup, steady-state reaction operation to shutdown with minimal operator intervention. The controller was also implemented on the pressurized syngas chemical looping (SCL) pilot test unit constructed at the National Carbon Capture Center (NCCC), demonstrating its pressure control capability with a designed transient state trajectory. An electrical capacitance volume tomography (ECVT) sensor device and its software were developed to image the packed moving bed and slugging fluidized bed of oxygen carriers in chemical looping systems at elevated temperatures. The ECVT device constructed was capable of tracking the subtle voidage variance along the moving bed axis as a feature for directly measuring the oxygen carrier particles’ linear velocity. Also, the high temperature ECVT device was used to study the fluidization characteristics of Geldart Group D particles.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2015

Radiation Modified Ion-Implanted Materials

The objective of this project, by BNL and PVI, is to develop radiation-modified materials like titanium, nickel, aluminum, steel, refractory metals and alloys by implanting them with ions. Ion implantation radically improves strength & friction resistance. The focus will be on components of products like jet engines & windmills. Example: implanting windmill parts subject to friction may greatly reduce operating costs. Currently, electric power from wind is a factor of 1.5 more costly than coal due to labor costs [frequent lubrication of parts involves stopping a windmill & opening its nacelle (enclosures)]. A 50% friction reduction through ion implantation of parts will reduce the need for lubricants and make wind-generated electricity cheaper than fossil fuel. Major PVI role is adapting laboratory experimental results into commercially viable industrial processes and marketing them.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2018

Functional Plasma-Sprayed Ceramic Coatings for Use in Fusion Energy Systems

There is growing demand for new, cleaner ways to supply the rapidly growing global energy demand, as concerns grow over climate change and declining supplies of fossil fuels. Nuclear fusion, the phenomenon in which atomic nuclei collide together and release massive quantities of energy, is one of the most promising options for generating large amounts of carbon-free energy in the future.1 To initiate a common nuclear fusion reaction of hydrogen isotopes – deuterium and tritium, a hot plasma state is needed at incredibly high temperatures approaching 100 million degrees centigrade. One practical way to achieve these conditions is to use magnetic confinement of the plasma in a toroidal nuclear reactor known as a tokamak (Figure 1). A commercial fusion power station will then harvest the energy by converting the heat provided by the fusion chain reaction into steam to power gas turbines, and generate electricity on to the grid, while the excess neutrons also produced in the process is captured by a blanket made of dense material surrounding the tokomak.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2018

Baja California Sur Renewable Integration Study

The goal of the Baja California Sur Renewable Integration Study (BAJA-RIS) is to evaluate the potential impacts of increasing penetrations of wind and solar power on Baja California Sur's bulk power system operations. Studying the impact of wind and solar power on power system operations is interesting and challenging because of the variable and uncertain nature of wind and solar resources. Baja California Sur is a very interesting and relevant region to study renewable integration impacts because its power system is an electrical island; most of its electricity is generated by burning expensive imported fossil fuels (oil and diesel), making it the power system in Mexico with the highest electricity variable generation costs and the most polluting; its electricity consumption is expected to grow significantly; and it has significant renewable energy resource potential in terms of wind power and especially in terms of solar power.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2018

Expanding the breeder’s toolbox for perennial grasses

With the increase in world energy demand and the environmental impacts associated with continued fossil fuel use, there is a great need for the development of alternative and sustainable fuel sources. Switchgrass ( Panicum virgatum L. ), a perennial grass native to North America, is poised to become one of the first dedicated biomass crops deployed on a large scale in the United States in large part due to its inherent high yield, adaptability and perennial nature. Current ‘cultivars’ of switchgrass are essentially undomesticated wild selections from natural populations. Thus, there is considerable potential for improvement of this emerging energy crop. Traditional breeding approaches in switchgrass have been hampered by its self-incompatibility and sensitivity to inbreeding, therefore there is a significant need to develop new tools for improved switchgrass breeding. The proposed research uses a systems biology approach to accelerate switchgrass breeding, to develop its biotechnological improvement through the generation of stress-tolerant varieties, and to establish ways to minimize the potential impact of transgenes on ecosystems. In this proposal, we will develop new breeding tools for perennial grasses and apply these tools toward improving switchgrass. Specifically, we will employ two complementary approaches to overcome the difficulty of breeding a large, polyploid, self-incompatible plant. The first approach will accelerate conventional breeding by developing a method to rapidly create doubled haploid (homozygous) lines for breeding. This approach is based on altering CENH3, a centromere-specific histone, leading to the production of haploid offspring when the centromere mutant is crossed to wild type plants. Subsequent genome doubling results in fully homozygous individuals and overcomes one of the major limitations in breeding self-incompatibile crops. These homozygous lines would allow switchgrass breeders to apply a variety of breeding approaches that have been previously impossible. The second approach is to develop tools and reagents to accelerate the biotechnological improvement of switchgrass including: modules for improved stress tolerance, a test bed to evaluate transgenes in a perennial model grass and a robust gene containment system. In order to maintain a favorable energy balance and avoid competition with food crops, dedicated biomass crops must be grown with minimal inputs (fertilizer and water) on marginal lands that are unsuited to the traditional high input agriculture necessary to produce food. Thus, abiotic stress tolerance and efficient water and nutrient use are of paramount importance. Considerable basic research has been directed at these areas and this knowledge has been used to develop transgenic approaches to greatly improve water and nutrient use efficiency. By applying these approaches to switchgrass we will rapidly increase drought tolerance and nutrient use efficiency. This approach can rapidly introduce these traits in different cultivars allowing breeders to add these traits to their elite germplasm. Since biotechnologically improved switchgrass must ultimately be grown in open fields, they must be designed to minimize the potential impact of the transgenes on non-target ecosystems. The best way to do this is to minimize gene flow from the transgenic plants. Thus, we will develop technology to introduce sterility into the transgenic plants. We will then combine this technology with the stress resistance modules to create switchgrass lines with enhanced resistance to abiotic stresses.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2018

Expanding the Breeder’s Toolbox for Perennial Grasses

With the increase in world energy demand and the environmental impacts associated with continued fossil fuel use, there is a great need for the development of alternative and sustainable fuel sources. Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), a perennial grass native to North America, is poised to become one of the first dedicated biomass crops deployed on a large scale in the United States in large part due to its inherent high yield, adaptability and perennial nature. Current ‘cultivars’ of switchgrass are essentially undomesticated wild selections from natural populations. Thus, there is considerable potential for improvement of this emerging energy crop. Traditional breeding approaches in switchgrass have been hampered by its self-incompatibility and sensitivity to inbreeding, therefore there is a significant need to develop new tools for improved switchgrass breeding. The proposed research uses a systems biology approach to accelerate switchgrass breeding, to develop its biotechnological improvement through the generation of stress-tolerant varieties, and to establish ways to minimize the potential impact of transgenes on ecosystems. In this proposal, we will develop new breeding tools for perennial grasses and apply these tools toward improving switchgrass. Specifically, we will employ two complementary approaches to overcome the difficulty of breeding a large, polyploid, self-incompatible plant. The first approach will accelerate conventional breeding by developing a method to rapidly create doubled haploid (homozygous) lines for breeding. This approach is based on altering CENH3, a centromere-specific histone, leading to the production of haploid offspring when the centromere mutant is crossed to wild type plants. Subsequent genome doubling results in fully homozygous individuals and overcomes one of the major limitations in breeding self-incompatibile crops. These homozygous lines would allow switchgrass breeders to apply a variety of breeding approaches that have been previously impossible. The second approach is to develop tools and reagents to accelerate the biotechnological improvement of switchgrass including: modules for improved stress tolerance, a test bed to evaluate transgenes in a perennial model grass and a robust gene containment system. In order to maintain a favorable energy balance and avoid competition with food crops, dedicated biomass crops must be grown with minimal inputs (fertilizer and water) on marginal lands that are unsuited to the traditional high input agriculture necessary to produce food. Thus, abiotic stress tolerance and efficient water and nutrient use are of paramount importance. Considerable basic research has been directed at these areas and this knowledge has been used to develop transgenic approaches to greatly improve water and nutrient use efficiency. By applying these approaches to switchgrass we will rapidly increase drought tolerance and nutrient use efficiency. This approach can rapidly introduce these traits in different cultivars allowing breeders to add these traits to their elite germplasm. Since biotechnologically improved switchgrass must ultimately be grown in open fields, they must be designed to minimize the potential impact of the transgenes on non-target ecosystems. The best way to do this is to minimize gene flow from the transgenic plants. Thus, we will develop technology to introduce sterility into the transgenic plants. We will then combine this technology with the stress resistance modules to create switchgrass lines with enhanced resistance to abiotic stresses.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2017

Benefit Analysis of Energy Storage for Cordova Electric Cooperative

This report is a follow on to a previous study performed by Sandia National Labs and Alaska Center for Energy and Power which investigated the use of an energy storage system (ESS) providing spinning reserve within the Cordova Electric Cooperative (CEC) grid. The study provided the savings using the ESS as spinning reserve through reduced fossil fuel consumption and runtime on the diesel generators. In this report, the saving values are used from the previous study to determine the benefit-to-cost ratio for various ratings of ESS performing spinning reserve and quantifying other applications that are applicable to CEC.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2018

Final TCF Report for Earth Battery: Storing Energy with Compressed Air and Heated Brine in Porous Rock

Cost-effective reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are best achieved when all low-carbon energy resources are fully utilized. This includes base-load power: nuclear energy (NE) and fossil energy (FE), integrated with CO 2 capture, use, and storage (CCUS), and variable renewable energy (VRE) (wind and solar); but, current CCUS options don’t justify CO 2 -capture costs and existing energy-storage approaches lack the capacity and storage duration needed to fully utilize all forms of low-carbon energy without curtailment. The Earth Battery is designed to meet these challenges by synergistically integrating conventional- and renewable-energy resources, allowing each to contribute more efficiently to the grid than if operated independently. The Earth Battery stores energy underground as pressure and heat, using compressed air and/or CO 2 , together with heated brine. These fluids are stored in either saline aquifers used for CO 2 or natural gas (NG) storage or in oil and gas reservoirs, making deployment possible over much of the U.S. We can provide enormous energy-storage capacity and duration. The main goal of this study was to assess the techno-economic feasibility of the versions of the Earth Battery that use compressed air energy storage (CAES). Current CAES systems use NG turbines and store air in salt caverns, which limits geographic deployment. Conventional CAES wastes much of the heat of air compression, comprising half of the compression energy. Our technology addresses these deficiencies by using permeable sedimentary rock to store air and the heat of compression as heated brine. When electricity is needed, air and hot brine are produced, with hot brine used to pre-heat air before it is fed into the expanders. Key factors affecting round-trip efficiency are (1) pressure loss in the air-storage reservoir, which depends on permeability (> 100 mD being needed for efficient operations) and (2) temperature loss in the hot-brine storage reservoir, which decreases with time as the storage formation heats up. The original scope of this project was to conduct a techno-economic assessment of diurnal storage with the CAES Earth Battery, including (1) Adiabatic CAES, which requires no fossil fuel and (2) NG/CAES, where one or more of the expansion stages are NG fueled. During its assessment, we found NG/CAES, generates excess heat of compression that can be put into long-term (seasonal) storage and be utilized in a combined-cycle fashion with the addition of steam turbines. This resulted in our developing a new Earth Battery technology, which we call the Thermal Earth Battery. We conducted energy-system analyses for the Thermal Earth Battery for various combinations of heat sources: (1) heat of FE combustion, (2) excess heat of compression from NG/CAES, and (3) solar thermal energy (STE). The other Earth Battery class we developed compresses CO 2 , rather than air; hence, it is called Compressed CO 2 Energy Storage (CCES). Finally, we developed an improved, more efficient, more versatile version of the Allam cycle, which uses pressurized CO 2 , and developed various options for integrating renewable energy and energy storage. Our improved Allam-cycle technology minimizes cooling-water consumption, while enabling reliable, dispatchable renewable energy. Although not anticipated in our original scope of work, our Topic 1 project evolved into a highly productive discovery process wherein we developed a portfolio of Earth Battery configuration options and use cases. Our ultimate objective was to evaluate those options and use cases and determine the most optimal first best use options for our Earth Battery technology. That process resulted in identifying seasonal energy storage as a niche where no other energy storage technology could compete with us. As a result, we have identified the Thermal Earth Battery, which uses conventional steam-turbine components, and our improved Allam-cycle integrated with renewable energy and energy storage as the most promising technologies to commercialize in our Topic 2 proposal. Finally, our scope included finding a commercialization team for a Topic 2 continuation of this project, which we have successfully completed.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗