Engineering Papers⌕ Search

SEARCH · Engineering Papers

Results for “Contacts”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 1,279 records · Page 71
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2018

Thermal Stability of Copper–Nickel and Copper–Nickel Silicide Contacts for Crystalline Silicon

Copper is a low-cost, low-damage alternative to Ag paste for front-side metallization of crystalline Si (c-Si) solar cells, but requires conductive diffusion barriers like Ni or NiSi. Thermal stability of these barriers during postmetallization anneal is critical for performance. In this study, we address the structural and chemical stability of Cu contacts with both Ni and NiSi barrier layers, identifying interfacial reactions responsible for their degradation. Superior thermal and chemical stability of single-phase NiSi barrier as compared to Ni is made evident by XRD, Auger, and Raman spectroscopies. Moreover, the commonly used Cu-Ni-Si contact stack does not convert to more stable Cu-NiSi-Si stack upon thermal treatment. Instead, Cu readily alloys with the Ni layer and reacts with the underlying c-Si to form Cu 3 Si, with no evidence for the formation of NixSi phases. Also, even the superior NiSi barrier slowly dissolves into Cu at elevated temperatures.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2016

High-work-function molybdenum oxide hole extraction contacts in hybrid organic–inorganic perovskite solar cells

Here, we investigate the effect of high work function contacts in halide perovskite absorber-based photovoltaic devices. Photoemission spectroscopy measurements reveal that band bending is induced in the absorber by the deposition of the high work function molybdenum trioxide (MoO 3 ). We find that direct contact between MoO 3 and the perovskite leads to a chemical reaction, which diminishes device functionality. Introducing an ultrathin spiro-MeOTAD buffer layer prevents the reaction, yet the altered evolution of the energy levels in the methylammonium lead iodide (MAPbI 3 ) layer at the interface still negatively impacts device performance.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2020

Altered Stability and Degradation Pathway of CH 3 NH 3 PbI 3 in Contact with Metal Oxide

Degradation in CH 3 NH 3 PbI 3 (MAPbI 3 ), when in contact with commonly used metal oxide transport layer materials in optoelectronic devices, is explored experimentally and theoretically. On the basis of the decomposition temperature, the interfacial stability decreases in the following order: MAPbI 3 + TiO 2 ~ MAPbI 3 alone > MAPbI 3 + SnO 2 > MAPbI 3 + NiO, consistent with thermodynamic data. When MAPbI 3 contacts NiO or SnO 2 , experimental results unequivocally show interfacial decomposition occurs at a lower temperature than bulk decomposition and produces different degradation products. Density functional theory calculations reveal an altered reaction pathway on oxide surfaces and elucidate the difference between NiO and TiO 2 . Furthermore, these results pinpoint the importance of understanding the interaction between halide perovskite and other materials used in a device to achieve intrinsically stable devices.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2016

Schottky-barrier-free contacts with two-dimensional semiconductors by surface-engineered MXenes

Two-dimensional (2D) metal carbides and nitrides, called MXenes, have attracted great interest for applications such as energy storage. Here we demonstrate their potential as Schottky-barrier-free metal contacts to 2D semiconductors, providing a solution to the contact-resistance problem in 2D electronics. Based on first principles calculations, we find that the surface chemistry strongly affects the Fermi level of MXenes: O termination always increases the work function with respect to that of bare surface, OH always decreases it, while F exhibits either trend depending on the specific material. This phenomenon originates from the effect of surface dipoles, which together with the weak Fermi level pinning, enable Schottky-barrier-free hole (or electron) injection into 2D semiconductors through van der Waals junctions with some of the O-terminated (or all the OH-terminated) MXenes. Furthermore, we suggest synthetic routes to control the surface terminations based on the calculated formation energies. Finally, this study enhances the understanding of the correlation between surface chemistry and electronic/transport properties of 2D materials, and also gives practical predictions for improving 2D electronics.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2015

Probing local bias-induced transitions using photothermal excitation contact resonance atomic force microscopy and voltage spectroscopy

In this paper, nanomechanical properties are closely related to the states of matter, including chemical composition, crystal structure, mesoscopic domain configuration, etc. Investigation of these properties at the nanoscale requires not only static imaging methods, e.g., contact resonance atomic force microscopy (CR-AFM), but also spectroscopic methods capable of revealing their dependence on various external stimuli. Here we demonstrate the voltage spectroscopy of CR-AFM, which was realized by combining photothermal excitation (as opposed to the conventional piezoacoustic excitation method) with the band excitation technique. We applied this spectroscopy to explore local bias-induced phenomena ranging from purely physical to surface electromechanical and electrochemical processes. Our measurements show that the changes in the surface properties associated with these bias-induced transitions can be accurately assessed in a fast and dynamic manner, using resonance frequency as a signature. Finally, with many of the advantages offered by photothermal excitation, contact resonance voltage spectroscopy not only is expected to find applications in a broader field of nanoscience but also will provide a basis for future development of other nanoscale elastic spectroscopies.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Low resistance p-type contacts to monolayer WSe2 through chlorinated solvent doping

Tungsten diselenide (WSe 2 ) is a promising p-type semiconductor limited by high contact resistance (R C ) and the lack of a reliable doping strategy. Here, we demonstrate that exposing WSe 2 to chloroform provides simple and stable p-type doping. In monolayer WSe 2 transistors with Pd contacts, chloroform increases the maximum hole current by over 100× (>200 µA/µm), reduces R C to ~ 2.5 kΩ·μm, and retains an on/off ratio of 10 10 at room temperature. These improvements persist for over 8 months, survive a 150 °C thermal anneal, and remain effective down to 10 K, enabling a cryogenic R C of ~ 1 kΩ·μm. Density functional theory indicates that chloroform strongly physisorbs to WSe 2 , inducing hole doping with minimal impact on the electronic states between the valence band and conduction band edges. Auger electron spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy suggest that chloroform intercalates at the WSe 2 interface with the gate oxide, contributing to doping stability and mitigating interfacial dielectric disorder, though further studies are needed to conclusively confirm this mechanism. This robust, scalable approach enables high-yield WSe 2 transistors with good p-type performance.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2023

Co-deposition of hole-selective contact and absorber for improving the processability of perovskite solar cells

Simplifying the manufacturing processes of renewable energy technologies is crucial to lowering the barriers to commercialization. In this context, to improve the manufacturability of perovskite solar cells (PSCs), here we have developed a one-step solution-coating procedure in which the hole-selective contact and perovskite light absorber spontaneously form, resulting in efficient inverted PSCs. We observed that phosphonic or carboxylic acids, incorporated into perovskite precursor solutions, self-assemble on the indium tin oxide substrate during perovskite film processing. They form a robust self-assembled monolayer as an excellent hole-selective contact while the perovskite crystallizes. Our approach solves wettability issues and simplifies device fabrication, advancing the manufacturability of PSCs. Our PSC devices with positive-intrinsic-negative (p-i-n) geometry show a power conversion efficiency of 24.5% and retain >90% of their initial efficiency after 1,200 h of operating at the maximum power point under continuous illumination. The approach shows good generality as it is compatible with different self-assembled monolayer molecular systems, perovskites, solvents and processing methods.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2017

Proximity-effect-induced Superconducting Gap in Topological Surface States – A Point Contact Spectroscopy Study of NbSe 2 /Bi 2 Se 3 Superconductor-Topological Insulator Heterostructures

Proximity-effect-induced superconductivity was studied in epitaxial topological insulator Bi 2 Se 3 thin films grown on superconducting NbSe 2 single crystals. A point contact spectroscopy (PCS) method was used at low temperatures down to 40 mK. An induced superconducting gap in Bi 2 Se 3 was observed in the spectra, which decreased with increasing Bi 2 Se 3 layer thickness, consistent with the proximity effect in the bulk states of Bi 2 Se 3 induced by NbSe 2 . At very low temperatures, an extra point contact feature which may correspond to a second energy gap appeared in the spectrum. For a 16 quintuple layer Bi 2 Se 3 on NbSe 2 sample, the bulk state gap value near the top surface is ~159 μeV, while the second gap value is ~120 μeV at 40 mK. The second gap value decreased with increasing Bi 2 Se 3 layer thickness, but the ratio between the second gap and the bulk state gap remained about the same for different Bi 2 Se 3 thicknesses. It is plausible that this is due to superconductivity in Bi 2 Se 3 topological surface states induced through the bulk states. In conclusion, the two induced gaps in the PCS measurement are consistent with the three-dimensional bulk state and the two-dimensional surface state superconducting gaps observed in the angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) measurement.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2017

Microchannel contacting of crystalline silicon solar cells

There is tremendous interest in reducing losses caused by the metal contacts in silicon photovoltaics, particularly the optical and resistive losses of the front metal grid. One commonly sought-after goal is the creation of high aspect-ratio metal fingers which provide an optically narrow and low resistance pathway to the external circuit. Currently, the most widely used metal contact deposition techniques are limited to widths and aspect-ratios of ~40 μm and ~0.5, respectively. In this study, we introduce the use of a micropatterned polydimethylsiloxane encapsulation layer to form narrow (~20 μm) microchannels, with aspect-ratios up to 8, on the surface of solar cells. We demonstrate that low temperature metal pastes, electroless plating and atomic layer deposition can all be used within the microchannels. Further, we fabricate proof-of-concept structures including simple planar silicon heterojunction and homojunction solar cells. While preliminary in both design and efficiency, these results demonstrate the potential of this approach and its compatibility with current solar cell architectures.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2020

Ultra-thin passivation layers in Cu(In,Ga)Se 2 thin-film solar cells: full-area passivated front contacts and their impact on bulk doping

In the search for highly transparent and non-toxic alternative front layers replacing state-of-the-art CdS in Cu(In,Ga)Se 2 thin-film solar cells, alternatives rarely exceed reference devices in terms of efficiency. Full-area ultra-thin aluminium oxide tunnelling layers do not require any contact patterning and thus overcome the main drawback of insulating passivation layers. Even a few monolayers of aluminium oxide can be deposited in a controlled manner by atomic layer deposition, they show excellent interface passivation properties, low absorption, and suitable current transport characteristics on test devices. Depositing a ZnO-based transparent front contact, however, results in extremely poor solar cell performance. The issue is not necessarily a low quality of the alternative front layer, but rather the intricate relation between front layer processing and electronic bulk properties in the absorber layer. We identify three challenges critical for the development of novel front passivation approaches:(i) both Cd and Zn impurities beneficially reduce the high native net dopant concentration in the space charge region, (ii) sputter deposition of ZnO damages the passivation layer resulting in increased interface recombination, (iii) thermal treatments of devices with ZnO layer result in substantial Zn diffusion, which can penetrate the full absorber thickness already at moderate temperatures.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2023

Real time monitoring of COVID-19 intervention effectiveness through contact tracing data

Communities worldwide have used vaccines and facemasks to mitigate the COVID-19 pandemic. When an individual opts to vaccinate or wear a mask, they may lower their own risk of becoming infected as well as the risk that they pose to others while infected. The first benefit–reducing susceptibility–has been established across multiple studies, while the second–reducing infectivity–is less well understood. Using a new statistical method, we estimate the efficacy of vaccines and facemasks at reducing both types of risks from contact tracing data collected in an urban setting. We find that vaccination reduced the risk of onward transmission by 40.7% [95% CI 25.8–53.2%] during the Delta wave and 31.0% [95% CI 19.4–40.9%] during the Omicron wave and that mask wearing reduced the risk of infection by 64.2% [95% CI 5.8–77.3%] during the Omicron wave. By harnessing commonly-collected contact tracing data, the approach can broadly provide timely and actionable estimates of intervention efficacy against a rapidly evolving pathogen.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2015

Nanowire CdS-CdTe solar cells with molybdenum oxide as contact

Using a 10 nm thick molybdenum oxide (MoO 3-x ) layer as a transparent and low barrier contact to p-CdTe, we demonstrate nanowire CdS-CdTe solar cells with a power conversion efficiency of 11% under front side illumination. Annealing the as-deposited MoO 3 film in N2 resulted in a reduction of the cell’s series resistance, from 9.97 Ω/cm 2 to 7.69 Ω/cm 2 , and increase in efficiency from 9.9% to 11%. Under illumination from the back, the MoO 3-x /Au side, the nanowire solar cells yielded Jsc of 21 mA/cm 2 and efficiency of 8.67%. Our results demonstrate use of a thin layer transition metal oxide as a potential way for a transparent back contact to nanowire CdS-CdTe solar cells. As a result, this work has implications toward enabling a novel superstrate structure nanowire CdS-CdTe solar cell on Al foil substrate by a low cost roll-to roll fabrication process.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2017

The crystalline/amorphous contact in Cu 2 O/Ta 2 O 5 heterostructures: increasing its sunlight-driven overall water splitting efficiency

Water splitting using heterostructures without external bias or sacrificial agents is promising for solving the energy crisis. However, the heterostructures with appropriate band alignments and band gaps have always shown certain degrees of lattice and electron mismatches at their interfaces, which make it difficult for these heterostructures to achieve the theoretically maximum sunlight-driven overall water splitting activity. Here, we made a new type of heterostructure—a crystalline Cu2O/amorphous Ta2O5 heterostructure instead of one with a crystalline/crystalline contact at the interface—which was found to perform overall water splitting with a high apparent quantum yield under visible light irradiation. The results revealed the crystalline/amorphous contact to have a great potential for allowing heterostructures to be used effectively for sunlight-driven overall water splitting.

Lou, Zirui↗
DOE OSTI2019

Effects of strain-dependent surface stress on the adhesive contact of a rigid sphere to a compliant substrate

Recent experiments have reported that the surface stress of soft elastic solids can increase rapidly with surface strain. For example, when a small hard sphere in adhesive contact with a soft silicone gel is slowly retracted from its rest position, it was found that the retraction force versus displacement relation cannot be explained either by the Johnson–Kendall–Roberts (JKR) theory or a recent indentation theory based on an isotropic surface stress that is independent of surface strain. In this paper, we address this problem using a finite element method to simulate the retraction process. Our numerical model does not have the restrictions of the aforementioned theories; that is, it can handle large nonlinear elastic deformation as well as a surface-strain-dependent surface stress. Our simulation is in good agreement with experimental force versus displacement data with no fitting parameters. Therefore, our results lend further support to the claim that significant strain-dependent surface stresses can occur in simple soft elastic gels. However, significant challenges remain in the reconciliation of theory and experiments, particularly regarding the geometry of the contact and substrate deformation.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

High broadband photoconductivity of few-layered MoS 2 field-effect transistors measured using multi-terminal methods: effects of contact resistance

Among the layered two dimensional semiconductors, molybdenum disulfide (MoS 2 ) is considered to be an excellent candidate for applications in optoelectronics and integrated circuits due to its layer-dependent tunable bandgap in the visible region, high ON/OFF current ratio in field-effect transistors (FET) and strong light–matter interaction properties. In this study, using multi-terminal measurements, we report high broadband photocurrent response ( R ) and external quantum efficiency (EQE) of few-atomic layered MoS 2 phototransistors fabricated on a SiO 2 dielectric substrate and encapsulated with a thin transparent polymer film of Cytop. The photocurrent response was measured using a white light source as well as a monochromatic light of wavelength λ = 400 nm–900 nm. We measured responsivity using a 2-terminal configuration as high as R = 1 × 10 3 A W -1 under white light illumination with an optical power P opt = 0.02 nW. The R value increased to 3.5 × 10 3 A W -1 when measured using a 4-terminal configuration. Using monochromatic light on the same device, the measured values of R were 10 3 and 6 × 10 3 A W -1 under illumination of λ = 400 nm when measured using 2- and 4-terminal methods, respectively. The highest EQE values obtained using λ = 400 nm were 10 5 % and 10 6 % measured using 2- and 4-terminal configurations, respectively. The wavelength dependent responsivity decreased from 400 nm to the near-IR region at 900 nm. The observed photoresponse, photocurrent–dark current ratio (PDCR), detectivity as a function of applied gate voltage, optical power, contact resistances and wavelength were measured and are discussed in detail. The observed responsivity is also thoroughly studied as a function of contact resistance of the device.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2012

Surface charging, discharging and chemical modification at a sliding contact

Electrostatic charging, discharging, and consequent surface modification induced by sliding dissimilar surfaces have been studied. The surface-charge related phenomena were monitored by using a home-built capacitive, non-contact electrical probe, and the surface chemistry was studied by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The experiments were performed on the disk surface of a ball-on-rotating-disk apparatus; using a glass disk and a Teflon (polytetrafluoroethylene) ball arrangement, and a polyester disks and a diamondlike carbon (DLC) coated steel ball arrangement. The capacitive probe is designed to perform highly resolved measurements, which is sensitive to relative change in charge density on the probed surface. For glass and Teflon arrangement, electrical measurements show that the ball track acquires non-uniform charging. Here not only the increase in charge density, but interestingly, increase in number of highly charged regions on the ball track was resolved. Threefold increase in the number of such highly charged regions per cycle was detected immediately before the gas breakdown-like incidences compared to that of other charge/discharge incidences at a fixed disk rotation speed. We are also able to comment on the behavior and the charge decay time in the ambient air-like condition, once the sliding contact is discontinued. XPS analysis showed a marginal deoxidation effect on the polyester disks due to the charging and discharging of the surfaces. Moreover, these XPS results clearly indicate that the wear and friction (sliding without charging) on the surface can be discarded from inducing such a deoxidation effect.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2012

Real-Space Microscopic Electrical Imaging of n+-p Junction Beneath Front-Side Ag Contact of Multicrystalline Si Solar Cells

We investigated the quality of the n+-p diffused junction beneath the front-side Ag contact of multicrystalline Si solar cells by characterizing the uniformities of electrostatic potential and doping concentration across the junction using the atomic force microscopy-based electrical imaging techniques of scanning Kelvin probe force microscopy and scanning capacitance microscopy. We found that Ag screen-printing metallization fired at the over-fire temperature significantly degrades the junction uniformity beneath the Ag contact grid, whereas metallization at the optimal- and under-fire temperatures does not cause degradation. Ag crystallites with widely distributed sizes were found at the Ag-grid/emitter-Si interface of the over-fired cell, which is associated with the junction damage beneath the Ag grid. Large crystallites protrude into Si deeper than the junction depth. However, the junction was not broken down; instead, it was reformed on the entire front of the crystallite/Si interface. We propose a mechanism of junction-quality degradation, based on emitter Si melting at the temperature around the Ag-Si eutectic point during firing, and subsequent re-crystallization with incorporation of Ag and other impurities and with formation of crystallographic defects during quenching. The effect of this junction damage on solar cell performance is discussed.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2012

The wavelength dependent photovoltaic effects caused by two different mechanisms in carbon nanotube film/CuO nanowire array heterodimensional contacts

Hetrodimensional contacts were fabricated by coating double-walled carbon nanotube (CNT) films on CuO nanowire arrays. Wavelength dependent photovoltaic effects by irradiating the devices with 405, 532, and 1064 nm lasers were observed. Two possible mechanisms responsible for the observed results were discussed. Photoexcitations within CuO nanowires and Schottky barriers in the heterojunctions dominate the photovoltaics in the 405 and 532 nm cases. For the 1064 nm case, the photovoltaic is the result of the excitation within the CNTs and of the heterodimensionality effect. Control experiments on CNT film/CuO granular film hetrodimensional contacts further show the relationship between these two mechanisms.

77 NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY↗