Engineering Papers⌕ Search

SEARCH · Engineering Papers

Results for “Recovery”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 1,261 records · Page 70
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2018

Electrophilic acid gas-reactive fluid, proppant, and process for enhanced fracturing and recovery of energy producing materials

An electrophilic acid gas-reactive fracturing fluid, proppant, and process are detailed. The fluid expands in volume to provide rapid and controlled increases in pressure that enhances fracturing in subterranean bedrock for recovery of energy-producing materials. The proppant stabilizes fracture openings in the bedrock to enhance recovery of energy-producing materials.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2019

A Summary of CO2-Enhanced Oil Recovery Options in the Illinois East Sub-Basin

Illinois Basin oil fields have an estimated CO2 storage resource of 140 to 440 million metric tons, 58 to 180 million metric tons of which are in reservoirs with conditions suitable for miscible CO2-EOR (Finley, 2005). Untapped reserves remain locked in established mature oil fields as well as prospective greenfields waiting for development. CO2-EOR recovery in the ILB has the potential to be economically significant by improving oil recovery and providing possible storage of anthropogenic CO2, and CO2-EOR reservoirs could potentially be co-located (stacked) with saline storage options. CO2-EOR interests in the wider region may assist the economics of a storage project long-term, via potential revenue from sale of CO2 for EOR and/or by taking advantage of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) tax credits under 26. U.S. Code § 45Q (and 2018 FUTURE Act amendments). Pilot scale injection tests have been performed at a few locations across the ILB with positive indications of oil response, but there have been no field-scale applications of CO2-EOR in the ILB. Enhanced ILB oil field miscibility classification maps show additional reservoir-level detail and help expand the screening area for CO2-EOR opportunities in the East Sub-Basin. Examination of the oil fields and their productive reservoirs revealed the presence of several carbonate and siliciclastic candidates for miscible/near miscible and immiscible CO2-EOR in the East Sub-Basin study area. In addition, related studies have identified and assessed residual oil zones (ROZs) in sandstone and carbonate formations throughout the region. These results and ongoing work highlight key reservoirs in primary fields of interest and provide the basis for targeted oilfield and site-specific work in assessing the feasibility of industrial-scale CO2 storage and CO2-EOR in the Illinois East Sub-Basin study area.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗
DOE OSTI2019

Synthesizing radioisotopes using an energy recovery linac

An apparatus and method for the production of radioisotopes utilizing an energy recovery linac. The ERL system is composed of an electron beam source, multiple superconducting radio frequency cavities operating at 4.5 K, a thin radiator, a target material, and a beam dump. The accompanying method discloses the use of the ERL system to generate desired radioisotopes via target interaction with bremsstrahlung photons while allowing recovery of a substantial portion of the electron beam energy before the beam is extracted to the beam dump.

Areti, Hari↗
DOE OSTI2019

Recovery of rare earth elements by liquid-liquid extraction from fresh water to hypersaline solutions

The disclosure describes a method of extraction for optimal recovery of rare earth elements (REE). This includes the optimization of a liquid-liquid extraction technique for economic extraction of REE from chemically complex brines. Through the use of a model, operating conditions are altered to increase separation efficiency. The technique achieves >98% recovery of all rare earth elements in one fraction, while using small volumes of sample and reagents. The method of the present invention recovers REE from previously unexploited waste streams, without need for development of new process equipment and while keeping a small footprint because of the volumes involved.

Noack, Clinton W.↗
DOE OSTI2019

Recovery of tritium from molten lithium blanket

Electrochemical cells and methods are described that can be utilized for the recovery of tritium directly from a molten lithium metal solution without the need for a separation or concentration step prior to the electrolytic recovery process. The methods and systems utilize an ion conducting electrolyte that conducts either lithium ion or tritide ion across the electrochemical cell.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Surfactant for enhanced oil recovery

A Janus graphene nanosheet (JGN) surfactant formed from a two-dimensional graphene oxide sheet and functionalized to produce an amphiphilic graphene nanosheet. The JGN may be a component of a nanofluid utilized in nanofluid flooding for oil recovery. The JGN may also be used as solid surfactants to form emulsions for oil recovery.

Ren, Zhifeng↗
DOE OSTI2021

Integrated heat and energy recovery ventilator system

A heat recovery ventilator (HRV) and/or energy recovery ventilator (ERV) that integrates with a residential capacity air handling unit (AHU) is embodied in a small footprint HRV or ERV unit that connects directly to the return side of an AHU and to outdoor air inlet and exhaust ducts. The ventilator includes a control system incorporating a processor and sensors that control the operation of the system to provide desired ventilation flow rates under varying conditions.

Puttagunta, Srikanth↗
DOE OSTI2022

The Development of Energy-Recovery Linacs

Energy-recovery linacs (ERLs) have been emphasised by the recent (2020) update of the European Strategy for Particle Physics as one of the most promising technologies for the accelerator base of future high-energy physics. The current paper has been written as a base document to support and specify details of the recently published European roadmap for the development of energy-recovery linacs. The paper summarises the previous achievements on ERLs and the status of the field and its basic technology items. The main possible future contributions and applications of ERLs to particle and nuclear physics as well as industrial developments are presented. The paper includes a vision for the further future, beyond 2030, as well as a comparative data base for the main existing and forthcoming ERL facilities. A series of continuous innovations, such as on intense electron sources or high-quality superconducting cavity technology, will massively contribute to the development of accelerator physics at large. Industrial applications are potentially revolutionary and may carry the development of ERLs much further, establishing another shining example of the impact of particle physics on society and its technical foundation with a special view on sustaining nature.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
DOE OSTI2013

Savannah River Site Footprint Reduction Results under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act - 13302

The Savannah River Site (SRS) is an 802 square-kilometer United States Department of Energy (US DOE) nuclear facility located along the Savannah River near Aiken, South Carolina, managed and operated by Savannah River Nuclear Solutions. Construction of SRS began in the early 1950's to enhance the nation's nuclear weapons capability. Nuclear weapons material production began in the early 1950's, eventually utilizing five production reactors constructed to support the national defense mission. Past operations have resulted in releases of hazardous constituents and substances to soil and groundwater, resulting in 515 waste sites with contamination exceeding regulatory thresholds. More than 1,000 facilities were constructed onsite with approximately 300 of them considered radiological, nuclear or industrial in nature. In 2003, SRS entered into a Memorandum of Agreement with its regulators to accelerate the cleanup using an Area Completion strategy. The strategy was designed to focus cleanup efforts on the 14 large industrial areas of the site to realize efficiencies of scale in the characterization, assessment, and remediation activities. This strategy focuses on addressing the contaminated surface units and the vadose zone and addressing groundwater plumes subsequently. This approach streamlines characterization and remediation efforts as well as the required regulatory documentation, while enhancing the ability to make large-scale cleanup decisions. In February 2009, Congress approved the American Reinvestment and Recovery Act (ARRA) to create jobs and promote economic recovery. At SRS, ARRA funding was established in part to accelerate the completion of environmental remediation and facility deactivation and decommissioning (D and D). By late 2012, SRS achieved 85 percent footprint reduction utilizing ARRA funding by accelerating and coupling waste unit remediation with D and D of remnant facilities. Facility D and D activities were sequenced and permitted with waste unit remediation activities to streamline regulatory approval and execution. Achieving footprint reduction fulfills the Government's responsibility to address legacy contamination; allows earlier completion of legally enforceable compliance agreement milestones; and enables future potential reuse of DOE resources, including land and infrastructure for other missions. Over the last 3.5 years significant achievements were met that contributed to footprint reduction, including the closure of 41 waste units (including 20 miles of radiologically contaminated stream) and decommissioning of 30 facilities (including the precedent setting in situ closure of two former production reactors, the first in the DOE Complex). Other notable achievements included the removal of over 39,750 cubic meters of debris and 68,810 cubic meters of contaminated soils, including 9175 cubic meters of lead-contaminated soil from a former site small arms testing range and treatment of 1,262 cubic meters of tritium-laden soils and concrete using a thermal treatment system. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2013

Energy balance for uranium recovery from seawater

The energy return on investment (EROI) of an energy resource is the ratio of the energy it ultimately produces to the energy used to recover it. EROI is a key viability measure for a new recovery technology, particularly in its early stages of development when financial cost assessment would be premature or highly uncertain. This paper estimates the EROI of uranium recovery from seawater via a braid adsorbent technology. In this paper, the energy cost of obtaining uranium from seawater is assessed by breaking the production chain into three processes: adsorbent production, adsorbent deployment and mooring, and uranium elution and purification. Both direct and embodied energy inputs are considered. Direct energy is the energy used by the processes themselves, while embodied energy is used to fabricate their material, equipment or chemical inputs. If the uranium is used in a once-through fuel cycle, the braid adsorbent technology EROI ranges from 12 to 27, depending on still-uncertain performance and system design parameters. It is highly sensitive to the adsorbent capacity in grams of U captured per kg of adsorbent as well as to potential economies in chemical use. This compares to an EROI of ca. 300 for contemporary terrestrial mining. It is important to note that these figures only consider the mineral extraction step in the fuel cycle. At a reference performance level of 2.76 g U recovered per kg adsorbent immersed, the largest energy consumers are the chemicals used in adsorbent production (63%), anchor chain mooring system fabrication and operations (17%), and unit processes in the adsorbent production step (12%). (authors)

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2012

A Perspective on Long-Term Recovery Following the Fukushima Nuclear Accident - 12075

The tragic events at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station began occurring on March 11, 2011, following Japan's unprecedented earthquake and tsunami. The subsequent loss of external power and on-site cooling capacity severely compromised the plant's safety systems, and subsequently, led to core melt in the affected reactors and damage to spent nuclear fuel in the storage pools. Together with hydrogen explosions, this resulted in a substantial release of radioactive material to the environment (mostly Iodine-131 and Cesium- 137), prompting an extensive evacuation effort. The latest release estimate places the event at the highest severity level (Level 7) on the International Nuclear Event Scale, the same as the Chernobyl accident of 1986. As the utility owner endeavored to stabilize the damaged facility, environmental contamination continued to propagate and affect every aspect of daily life in the affected region of Japan. Elevated levels of radioactivity (mostly dominated by Cs-137 with the passage of time) were found in soil, drinking water, vegetation, produce, seafood, and other foodstuffs. An estimated 80,000 to 90,000 people were evacuated; more evacuations are being contemplated months after the accident, and a vast amount of land has become contaminated. Early actions were taken to ban the shipment and sale of contaminated food and drinking water, followed by later actions to ban the shipment and sale of contaminated beef, mushrooms, and seafood. As the event continues to evolve toward stabilization, the long-term recovery effort needs to commence - a process that doubtless will involve rather complex decision-making interactions between various stakeholders. Key issues that may be encountered and considered in such a process include (1) socio-political factors, (2) local economic considerations, (3) land use options, (4) remediation approaches, (5) decontamination methods, (6) radioactive waste management, (7) cleanup levels and options, and (8) government policies, among others. This paper offers a perspective on this likely long and arduous journey toward establishing a 'new normal' that will ultimately take shape. Toward this end, it is important to evaluate the 'optimization' process advocated by the international community in achieving long-term recovery from this particularly fateful event in Fukushima. In the process, experience and lessons learned from past events will be fully evaluated and considered. (author)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2012

Fukushima Nuclear Crisis Recovery: A Modular Water Treatment System Deployed in Seven Weeks - 12489

On March 11, 2011, the magnitude 9.0 Great East Japan earthquake, Tohoku, hit off the Fukushima coast of Japan. This was one of the most powerful earthquakes in recorded history and the most powerful one known to have hit Japan. The ensuing tsunami devastated a huge area resulting in some 25,000 persons confirmed dead or missing. The perfect storm was complete when the tsunami then found the four reactor, Fukushima-Daiichi Nuclear Station directly in its destructive path. While recovery systems admirably survived the powerful earthquake, the seawater from the tsunami knocked the emergency cooling systems out and did extensive damage to the plant and site. Subsequent hydrogen generation caused explosions which extended this damage to a new level and further flooded the buildings with highly contaminated water. Some 2 million people were evacuated from a fifty mile radius of the area and evaluation and cleanup began. Teams were assembled in Tokyo the first week of April to lay out potential plans for the immediate treatment of some 63 million gallons (a number which later exceeded 110 million gallons) of highly contaminated water to avoid overflow from the buildings as well as supply the desperately needed clean cooling water for the reactors. A system had to be deployed with a very brief cold shake down and hot startup before the rainy season started in early June. Joined by team members Toshiba (oil removal system), AREVA (chemical precipitation system) and Hitachi-GE (RO system), Kurion (cesium removal system following the oil separator) proposed, designed, fabricated, delivered and started up a one of a kind treatment skid and over 100 metric tons of specially engineered and modified Ion Specific Media (ISM) customized for this very challenging seawater/oil application, all in seven weeks. After a very short cold shake down, the system went into operation on June 17, 2011 on actual waste waters far exceeding 1 million Bq/mL in cesium and many other isotopes. One must remember that, in addition to attempting to do isotope removal in the competition of seawater (as high as 18,000 ppm sodium due to concentration), some 350,000 gallons of turbine oil was dispersed into the flooded buildings as well. The proposed system consisted of a 4 guard vessel skid for the oil and debris, 4 skids containing 16 cesium towers in a lead-lag layout with removable vessels (sent to an interim storage facility), and a 4 polishing vessel skid for iodine removal and trace cesium levels. At a flow rate of at least 220 gallons per minute, the system has routinely removed over 99% of the cesium, the main component of the activity, since going on line. To date, some 50% of the original activity has been removed and stabilized and cold shutdown of the plant was announced on December 10, 2011. In March and April alone, 10 cubic feet of Engineered Herschelite was shipped to Seabrook Nuclear Power Plant, NPP, to support the April 1, 2011 outage cleanup; 400 cubic feet was shipped to Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) for strontium (Sr-90) ground water remediation; and 6000 cubic feet (100 metric tons, MT, or 220,400 pounds) was readied for the Fukushima Nuclear Power Station with an additional 100 MT on standby for replacement vessels. This experience and accelerated media production in the U.S. bore direct application to what was to soon be used in Fukushima. How such a sophisticated and totally unique system and huge amount of media could be deployable in such a challenging and changing matrix, and in only seven weeks, is outlined in this paper as well as the system and operation itself. As demonstrated herein, all ten major steps leading up to the readiness and acceptance of a modular emergency technology recovery system were met and in a very short period of time, thus utilizing three decades of experience to produce and deliver such a system literally in seven weeks: - EPRI - U.S. Testing and Experience Leading to Introduction to EPRI - Japan and Subsequently TEPCO Emergency Meetings - Three Mile Island (TMI) Media and Vitrification Experience by PNNL - Commercial Nuclear Power Plant Media Experience (including long term Cs removal) - DOE Low Active Waste (LAW) and High Level Waste (HLW) in High Salt and pH Conditions Media and Vitrification Experience - National Laboratory (e.g. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, ORNL) Ground Water Media Experience - Gulf Oil Spill Media Experience in Seawater - All Media Had to be Fully Tested at High Rad Levels in Seawater and Oil Before Arriving in Japan - Final Waste Form and Disposal Experience (e.g., vitrification) - 100 Metric Tons (6000 cubic feet or 220,400 pounds) of Media had to be Immediately Available with the same amount in production as replacement media. [To date, for 2011, 400 MT of media have been prepared for Japan alone.] - Remote Operation, Modular Water Treatment Equipment Design and Fabrication in both Commercial NPP and DOE Canyon Operations. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2017

Algal Sorbents for Treatment of Multiple Metals and Recovery of Rare Earths in Simulated and Actual Wastewater - 17098

In this study, waste micro algae was used in adsorption/desorption of ternary system of metals including thallium (Tl), cadmium (Cd) and lanthanum (La). Equilibrium and kinetic studies were carried out con-currently in batch reactors. The effect of pH and ionic strength were tested. The Extended Langmuir model (ELM) and Combined Langmuir and Freundlich model (CLFM) were used to evaluate the data from equilibrium experiments. AQUASIM was used for kinetic modelling of a ternary system of metals. Adsorption using ternary system of metals showed a lower sorption capacity (q{sub max}) compared to single metallic studies due to competition for binding sites in the former. Generally, the ELM performed better than CLFM with correlation coefficient (R{sup 2}) of 0.99. Thallium showed the highest (q{sub max}) of 77.28 mg/g and (K) of 0.244 L/g. The affinity (K{sub L}) was highest for Tl and La at 0.244 and 0.403 L/g respectively in the ELM. The experimental data from kinetic studies relatively fit well the predicted model in AQUASIM. Recovery of metals by D. multivariabilis was highest for La at 90.92 %. In the actual wastewater samples, all the available metal concentrations were generally reduced by tested algae. C. vulgaris and D. multivariabilis removed 100% cobalt and thallium from smelter water with an initial concentration of 0.316 and 2.302 mg/L respectively. Chromium from mine water was reduced from 78.365 to 43.47 and 38.14 mg/L using S. acuminutus and D. multivariabilis respectively. The algal species tested presented great potential for application in industrial wastewater treatment and recovery of REE. (authors)

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2017

Hanford's Double-Shell Tank AY-102 Recovery Project - 17416

Since at least August 2012, Hanford Tank 241-AY-102 (AY-102) has been leaking from its primary tank into its secondary containment. A pumping plan was developed in 2013 to provide a path forward for recommended remediation actions to be implemented as part of the AY-102 Recovery Project. On March 21, 2014, the Washington State Department of Ecology issued Administrative Order No. 10618 requiring Washington River Protection Solutions and the United States Department of Energy to conduct actions related to and including the removal of waste from AY-102. The three parties agreed to resolve the appeal of the Administrative Order through a Settlement Agreement which addresses the remaining requirements and implements enforceable milestone dates, including initiation of waste retrieval by March 4, 2016 and completion of waste retrieval operations by March 4, 2017. The AY-102 Recovery Project was developed to address the Settlement Agreement requirements. While retrieval of waste from Single-Shell Tanks has been performed at Hanford for decades, retrieval from Double-Shell Tank AY-102 required adaptation of the existing technologies to a new environment on a larger scale than previously encountered. A significant number of obstructions and in-tank equipment limit accessibility to the high source term AY-102 waste and the location of the selected receiver tank required installation of an extensive, heavily-shielded above-ground transfer line. Despite countless challenges and obstacles encountered throughout, the project successfully completed system design, fabrication, installation, testing, and the first phase of operations within a highly compressed, aggressive schedule. Waste retrieval operations in AY-102 commenced on March 3, 2016 and the initial operating phase concluded on April 30. Additional sluicing capability was required to complete the mission and four Extended Reach Sluicers were installed to support the second operating phase, which began on December 8, 2016. As of December 31, 2016, approximately 97% of the original waste volume had been removed, resulting in an estimated remaining waste volume of about 75,000 liters. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2023

Refractory Wear Characterization in Lime Recovery Kilns

The industry standard for lime recovery kiln calcining zone refractories is 60% or 70% alumina brick. Rapid unexpected refractory wear in lime recovery kilns has often been attributed to excess alkali carryover in the lime kiln feed. Recent laboratory work attributes refractory wear to overheating and the lime charge fluxing the refractory. This paper corroborates this laboratory work with some case history post-mortem examinations of bricks removed from rotary lime kiln linings. The paper concludes with methods to manage refractory wear, including kiln burner performance.

Hemrick, James↗
DOE OSTI2018

Richard Hodes Memorial Award Lecture - Development and Certification of New Type-B Containers for the Recovery of High-Activity Sealed Sources - 18710

The US Department of Energy (DOE) National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) Off-Site Source Recovery Program (OSRP) has successfully completed a project to design, test, and certify two new Type-B transportation packages. Since about 2011 a shortage of these containers has significantly constrained the recovery and disposal of commercially licensed high activity radioactive sealed sources. These new packages will enable NNSA/OSRP to transport a majority of the high-activity Cs-137 and Co-60 devices encountered in the coming years and decades. The 435-B is an unshielded, leak-tight container, which can be used to ship common shielded devices, such as the teletherapy source drawers and irradiators that contain high-activity Co-60 and Cs-137 sources. The 380-B is a much larger, leak-tight, lead-shielded Type B cask capable of transport by truck, rail, ship, or air. Additionally, to encourage and facilitate the development of transportation capacity, DOE/NNSA intends to make the design documentation available at no cost to commercial vendors. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2017

Estimation of Core Recovery Time with TRACE

Following the severe accident in Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan, safety related concerns about the zirconium based claddings used in current light water reactors have increased. High corrosion resistance and low neutron absorption cross section make zirconium a suitable cladding material for normal nuclear plant operational conditions. However, for nuclear accident scenarios when safety functions of the plant are lost, Zr claddings undergo exothermic reaction with steam and exacerbate the accident conditions. The exothermic reaction increases the temperature of the cladding and accelerates core melting in severe accident progression. And the generation of explosive hydrogen gas accumulates and challenges the structural integrity. The accident tolerant fuel (ATF) concept is the fuel and cladding system that gives a longer time margin, compared to standard Zr claddings, to cope with the accident when core cooling systems are lost in a nuclear power plant. The ATF cladding should have slower oxidation kinetics and less hydrogen generation than Zr to alleviate consequences of cladding interaction with steam at high temperatures. The maximum time available to mitigate progression of severe accident is an important measure to evaluate benefits of ATF claddings. For this work, the maximum time available to mitigate progression of severe accident is selected as the time at which cladding melting reaction starts. Melting reaction is selected as an upper limit because of the degradation of coolable geometry. Maintaining the coolable geometry is a regulation criteria for both loss of coolant (LOCA) analyses and outside the LOCA analyses. Once the melting of the cladding starts, it exacerbates the deformation of the fuel assembly and hottest rods within the core cannot be cooled by water reflood and results in fuel melting progression. The aim of this work is to evaluate time margin gain of ATF cladding in a severe accident scenario of LOCA without safety injections and station blackout considering oxidation kinetics only. Also it is assumed that safety injections are recovered before melting of the claddings start and the sensitivity of safety injection actuation time on core recovery is analyzed. The core recovery time is the time when makeup water from safety injections quench the fuel rods and halt the progression of the severe accident. This time is estimated by initiating safety injections at different times and observing the hot rod behavior which represents 1/5. of the core in this work. It is considered that core is not recoverable when 20% of the core is damaged.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Recovery of valuable metals from electronic waste using a novel ammonia-based hydrometallurgical process

The growing quantity of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), also known as electronic waste (E-waste), has been an area of growing public concern. The abundance of valuable metals contained in waste printed circuit boards (WPCBs) has made it a promising secondary resource, especially for Cu and Au. Although the recovery of metals from WPCBs via hydrometallurgical routes has been studied extensively over the past 20 years, most of the research has been limited in the laboratory. In current hydrometallurgical processes, strong acids and expensive oxidizers are often used to ensure a high recovery of metals without considering the sustainability aspects of the environment and economics. To improve upon current hydrometallurgical offerings, the current study seeks to develop an energy-saving, environmentally friendly, economic and sustainable process to efficiently recover the valuable metals from real-world end-of-life WPCBs. The new contributions presented in this study are 1) design and evaluation of a comprehensive hydrometallurgical flowsheet; 2) employment of real end-of-life PCBs as feed materials in an investigation on Cu-NH3 leaching kinetics; 3) further application of kinetic model on a counter flow process simulation; and 4) evaluation of the influences by co-existing metals in Au-S2O3 leaching and recommendation for favorable leaching conditions.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗