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At least 1,261 records · Page 70
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2020

Alternative, Less Water-Intensive, Fracturing Fluids for Enhanced Geothermal Systems

Four fracturing fluids; water, CO2, CO2 with water, and CO2 with an aqueous solution of a CO2-reactive polymer, poly(allylamine) (PAA, 1wt%) were evaluated using a high-temperature true-triaxial fracturing apparatus and ½ foot side granite cubic samples. All three CO2-based fracturing fluids, CO2, CO2 with water, and CO2 with aqueous PAA fractured granite at higher breakdown pressures, high transient flow rates, and produce higher-conductivity fractures as compared to water. Additionally, faster pressurization rates with CO2-based fracturing fluids (obtained when fracturing at constant flow rate mode) are found to be associated with higher fracture conductivities. When partially saturating the rock sample with PAA solution followed by fracturing with CO2, the volume expansion caused by CO2-induced cross-linking of PAA leads to a faster pressure increase due to the associated stress generated and increase in viscosity. It was also found that CO2 as a fracturing fluid injected in hot dry rock (HDR) attain the highest fracture conductivity only when injected at very high flow rates, followed very closely by the CO2/PAA fracturing fluid system that generates fractures with, on average, similarly high conductivity values though independently of injection flow rate and using 1/6 of the mass of CO2 as compared to CO2 in HDR. Breakdown pressures were also similar for CO2 stimulation in HDR and CO2/PAA fluid system under identical injection flow rates. It is concluded that CO2 (when injected in HDR) and CO2/PAA are the fluids of choice for stimulation of granitic rock samples under the studied geothermal P/T conditions. CO2/PAA, however, offer the following three additional advantages; 1) it requires significantly lower volumes of CO2, 2) fracture permeability is independent of injection flow rate, and 3) the reversible (previously reported) viscosity increase is beneficial to transport proppants if they are ever developed enhanced geothermal systems.

Jian, Guoqing↗
DOE OSTI2022

The Modeling of the Synfuel Production Process: Process models of Fischer-Tropsch production with electricity and hydrogen provided by various scales of nuclear plants

Synthetic fuels (synfuels), also known as electro-fuels (E-fuels), are hydrocarbon fuels produced from waste CO2 streams and water electrolysis, with electricity as the primary source of energy. To achieve substantial reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, electricity sources must release zero carbon or near-zero carbon, as is the case with solar, wind, hydro, and nuclear power. Nuclear power is one of the largest and steadiest domestic sources of clean energy in the United States. Moreover, nuclear power has the potential to produce hydrogen economically for less than $2/kg, reaching the DOE near-term target price. Thus, using nuclear power to produce synfuels has the unique potential to significantly reduce the GHG emissions of hydrocarbon fuels production and end-use applications. Fisher-Tropsch or FT fuel (a mixture of naphtha, jet fuel, and diesel) is of great interest because it is a drop-in fuel that can be blended with conventional petroleum counterparts and is compatible with existing infrastructure. By using the ASPEN Plus model, this report develops FT fuel production models on three scales, corresponding to nuclear plants with capacities of 1000 MWe, 437 Mwe, and 100 MWe, respectively. The FT model case with energy from a 437-MWe nuclear plant is used as a baseline case. This report summarizes the baseline ASPEN Plus model results with a detailed mass and energy analysis. Our modeled facility produces 507 MT/day (185,000 gal/day) of FT fuel by converting 255 MT/day of hydrogen and 1,580 MT/day of CO2. The FT fuel production energy efficiency from hydrogen and electricity energy inputs is 70% (lowerheating-value or LHV-based). Including the high-temperature electrolyzer in the system boundary, the FT fuel production LHV efficiency from electricity and thermal energy inputs is 51%, considering 39.8 kWh/kg of electricity and 6.86 kWh/kg of thermal energy use from a nuclear plant for hydrogen production. The FT production efficiency can potentially be increased by further integrating the heat exchange between nuclear plant and FT process, and this study is underway. The carbon conversion ratio in the baseline case is 99%, with process CO2 capture and recirculation and oxy-combustion using the oxygen by-product from water electrolysis. The hydrogen consumption is 1.38 kg/gal-FT fuel and the CO2 consumption is 8.56 kg/gal-FT fuel in the baseline case. With different FT production scales determined by the nuclear plant capacity, the FT model was scaled using the same operating parameters, which led to the same conversion efficiency regardless of scale. However, the different FT plant scales will impact the economics of FT fuel production; this impact will be examined in the next phase of this study.

Zang, Guiyan↗
DOE OSTI2023

Development of Laboratory Testbeds Simulating Real-World Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Climate change leads to drastic variations in the environment that can threaten food security. To protect the security and prosperity of the environment, new agricultural practices that mitigate greenhouse gas emissions need to be developed. Agriculture plays a large role in the emissions of greenhouse gases, thus a need for new practices. At present, testing landscape management practices for carbon sequestration and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions are expensive because such tests often require intricate field experiments. Laboratory tests on landscape management practices often fail to simulate and accurately represent the natural systems researchers intend to study. There are methods that can be used to make these laboratory tests more closely replicate natural systems for the improvement of agricultural lands used in biofuel and food production. The goal of this project is to develop a laboratory testbed replicating field conditions that will mimic field greenhouse gas emissions. To achieve this goal, we used soil cores taken from agricultural and marginal lands, then attached fiberglass wicks to improve the drainage system in the soil core to simulate a more natural hydraulic system. The soil cores with the wicks were used to compared to greenhouse gas emissions observed in the field. Our preliminary results suggest that the soil carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide flux from the agricultural land site were comparable to the soil cores equipped with the drainage wicks. The data suggests that laboratory testbeds can be used to mimic field greenhouse gas emissions if parameters, such as soil water content were in a set range. The laboratory testbed produces similar greenhouse gas emissions to the agricultural site when the soil water content was between 15-25%.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS1976

The neutral coma of comets: A review

The hypothesis that water snow controls the vaporization of the nucleus of some comets seems verified from the general order of magnitude of the size of their nucleus and of their nuclear albedo; the largest observed production rates are H and OH which both seem to originate from the photodissociation of H2O, as also confirmed by the scale length of the invisible parent molecule producing OH. However, comet Encke is not uniformly covered by water snow, as it produces only one tenth of the expected vaporization. Early results on comet Kohoutek suggest that the conclusions could be slightly different for some of the new comets in Oort's sense. If the far ultraviolet observations confirm the early assessments of the production rates of C, O and H, then at least another major constituent competing with water has not yet been detected. Such a major constituent is suggested by the ratios C/O = 0.24 and H/O = 2.5.

Delsemme, A. H.↗
NASA NTRS1994

The kinetics and dynamics of the coma of Halley's comet

This grant to the University of Michigan supported the efforts of Michael R. Combi to serve as a co-investigator in collaboration with a larger effort by the principal investigator, William Smyth of Atmospheric and Environmental Research, Inc. The overall objective of this project was to analyze in a self-consistent manner unique optical O((sup 1)D) and NH2 ultra-high resolution line profile data of excellent quality and other supporting lower-resolution spectral data for the coma of comet P/Halley by using highly developed and physically-based cometary coma models in order to determine and explain in terms of physical processes the actual dynamics and photochemical kinetics that occur in the coma. The justification for this work is that it provides a valuable and underlying physical base from which to interpret significantly different types of coma observations in a self-consistent manner and hence bring into agreement (or avoid) apparent inconsistencies that arise from non-physically based interpretations. The level of effort for the Michigan component amounted to less than three person-months over a planned period of three years. The period had been extended at no extra cost to four years because the Michigan grant and the AER contract did not have coincident time periods. An effort of somewhat larger scope was undertaken by the PI. The importance of the O((sup 1)D) profiles is that they provide a direct trace of the water distribution in comets. The line profile shape is produced by the convolution of the outflow velocity and thermal dispersion of the parent water molecules with the photokinetic ejection of the oxygen atoms upon photodissociation of the parent water molecules. Our understanding of the NH2 and its precursor ammonia are important for comet-to-comet composition variations as they relate to the cosmo-chemistry of the early solar nebula. Modeling of the distribution of NH2 is necessary in order to infer the ammonia production rates from NH2 observations.

Combi, Michael R.↗
NASA NTRS2014

Evidence for a Noachian-Aged Ephemeral Lake in Gusev Crater, Mars

Gusev crater was selected as the landing site for the Spirit rover because of the likelihood that it contained an ancient lake. Although outcrops rich in Mg-Fe carbonate dubbed Comanche were discovered in the Noachian-aged Columbia Hills, they were inferred to result from volcanic hydrothermal activity. Spirit encountered other mineral and chemical indicators of aqueous activity, but none was recognized as definitive evidence for a former lake in part because none was associated with obvious lacustrine sedimentary deposits. However, water discharge into Martian crater basins like Gusev may have been episodic, producing only small amounts of sediment and shallow ephemeral lakes. Evaporative precipitation from such water bodies has been suggested as a way of producing the Mg- and Fe-rich carbonates found in ALH84001 and carbonates and salts in some nakhlites a hypothesis we examine for the Comanche carbonate.

Ruff, S. W.↗
NASA NTRS2015

Development of a Low Toxicity Urine Pretreatment for Water Recovery in Space

Wastewater stabilization was an essential component of the spacecraft water cycle. The purpose of stabilizing wastewater was two-fold. First, stabilization prevents the breakdown of urea into ammonia, a toxic gas at high concentrations. Second, it prevents the growth of microorganisms, thereby mitigating hardware and water quality issues due to due biofilm and planktonic growth. Current stabilization techniques involve oxidizers and strong acids (pH=2) such as chromic and sulfuric acid, which are highly toxic and pose a risk to crew health. The purpose of this effort was to explore less toxic stabilization techniques, such as food-grade and commercial care preservatives. Additionally, certain preservatives were tested in the presence of a low-toxicity organic acid. Triplicate 300-mL volumes of urine were dosed with a predetermined quantity of stabilizer and stored for two weeks. During that time, pH, total organic carbon (TOC), ammonia, and turbidity were monitored. Those preservatives that showed the lowest visible microbial growth and stable pH were further tested in a six-month stability study. The results of the six-month study are also included in this paper. Additionally, the pretreatment formulations were tested to determine if the pretreated urine could be distilled to remove 85% of the water, as would occur on the ISS. The goal of the pretreatment was to produce no solids in the resulting brine at 85% water recovery.

Adam, Niklas↗
NASA NTRS1994

Implementation of a state of the art automated system for the production of cloud/water vapor motion winds from geostationary satellites

The thrust of the proposed effort under this contract is aimed at improving techniques to track water vapor data in sequences of imagery from geostationary satellites. In regards to this task, significant testing, evaluation, and progress was accomplished during this period. Sets of winds derived from Meteosat data were routinely produced during Atlantic hurricane events in the 1993 season. These wind sets were delivered via Internet in real time to the Hurricane Research Division in Miami for their evaluation in a track forecast model. For eighteen cases in which 72-hour forecasts were produced, thirteen resulted in track forecast improvements (some quite significant). In addition, quality-controlled Meteosat water vapor winds produced by NESDIS were validated against rawinsondes, yielding an 8 m/s RMS. This figure is comparable to upper-level cloud drift wind accuracies. Given the complementary horizontal coverage in cloud-free areas, we believe that water vapor vectors can supplement cloud-drift wind information to provide good full-disk coverage of the upper tropospheric flow. The impact of these winds on numerical analysis and forecasts will be tested in the next reporting period.

Velden, Christopher S.↗
NASA NTRS1981

Microwave radiometer measurement of tidally induced salinity changes off the Georgia coast

A quasi-synoptic survey of tidally induced salinity changes off the Georgia coast was performed by using a L band microwave radiomater onboard a NASA aircraft. Salinity maps were obtained for ebb and flood conditions in order to define the salinity distributions near rivers and sounds and major changes that occur from ebb flow to flood flow. The Savannah River plume dominated the salinity regime and extended out from the Savannah River mouth about 12 km during ebb tidal conditions. The plume merged into a band of low salinity water extending along the Georgia-South Carolina coast which was produced by the many river sources of freshwater entering the coastal waters. The changes in salinity observed offshore of the river plume area were consistent with estimates of the changes that would occur over a typical tidal excursion perpendicular to the observed gradient.

Kendall, B. M.↗
NASA NTRS1971

Erosion of metals by multiple impacts with water

Investigation determines - relation between impact velocity and minimum number of impacts producing visible erosion, relation between high frequency fatigue stresses and number of cycles to failure, water-hammer stresses relation to high frequency endurance limit, erosion rate as exposure time function, and correlates experimental data with recent theory.

Rudy, S. L.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Velocity distributions of H and OH produced through solar photodissociation of H2O

The calculated velocity distributions of atomic hydrogen and hydroxyl radicals produced through solar photodissociation of gaseous water molecules are presented. Under collisionless conditions, the calculation was carried out using the most recent available data for the production of H and OH through photodissociation of H2O from its dissociation onset throughout the EUV region. Because the lack of data in certain spectral regions, only upper and lower bounds to the velocity distributions can be obtained. The results show that the H atoms and OH radicals produced exhibit multiple velocity groups. Since most of the current cometary modeling uses a single velocity of 20 km/s associated with the photodissociation of H2O, the present results may be useful in interpreting the many peaks observed in the velocity distributions of cometary atomic hydrogen.

Wu, C. Y. Robert↗
NASA NTRS1993

A comparison of simulated precipitation by hybrid isentropic-sigma and sigma models

Simulations of dry and moist baroclinic development from 10- and 22-layer hybrid isentropic-sigma coordinate models are compared with those from 11-, 27-, and 35-layer sigma coordinate models. The ability of the models to transport water vapor and simulate equivalent potential temperature is examined. Predictions of the timing, location, and amount of precipitation are compared. Several analytical distributions of water vapor are specified initially. It is shown that when the relative humidity is vertically uniform through a substantial extent of the atmosphere, all the models produce very similar precipitation distributions. However, when water vapor is confined to relatively shallow layers, the ability of the sigma coordinate models to simulate the timing, location, and amount of precipitation is severely compromised.

Johnson, Donald R.↗
DOE OSTI2020

Drivers of Water Use in the Agricultural Sector of the European Union 27

Population growth and the uncertain hazards that accompany climate change have put increasing pressure on the management and sustainability of water. It has a direct impact on agriculture and its domestic and international supply chain linkages. As one of the largest agricultural producers in the world, the European Union (EU) is particularly sensitive to changes in water availability. Therefore, here we perform a structural decomposition analysis based on the recently released EXIOBASE 3 database to examine in depth how changes in water input coefficients, in final demand and in technology have affected changes in water use across crops. Crop production consumes 99% of the direct water in agriculture. Our results show that the largest EU crop producers have experienced an increase in water use that is mostly driven by changes in technology. On the other hand, several Mediterranean countries, where water scarcity has been a problem for years, have decreased their water consumption mostly thanks to an improvement in their water intensity. Results by crop are consistent with those at the aggregated level except for vegetables of which water use changes have been primarily driven by changes in final demand and water intensity.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS2013

Advanced Optical Diagnostics for Ice Crystal Cloud Measurements in the NASA Glenn Propulsion Systems Laboratory

A light extinction tomography technique has been developed to monitor ice water clouds upstream of a direct connected engine in the Propulsion Systems Laboratory (PSL) at NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC). The system consists of 60 laser diodes with sheet generating optics and 120 detectors mounted around a 36-inch diameter ring. The sources are pulsed sequentially while the detectors acquire line-of-sight extinction data for each laser pulse. Using computed tomography algorithms, the extinction data are analyzed to produce a plot of the relative water content in the measurement plane. To target the low-spatial-frequency nature of ice water clouds, unique tomography algorithms were developed using filtered back-projection methods and direct inversion methods that use Gaussian basis functions. With the availability of a priori knowledge of the mean droplet size and the total water content at some point in the measurement plane, the tomography system can provide near real-time in-situ quantitative full-field total water content data at a measurement plane approximately 5 feet upstream of the engine inlet. Results from ice crystal clouds in the PSL are presented. In addition to the optical tomography technique, laser sheet imaging has also been applied in the PSL to provide planar ice cloud uniformity and relative water content data during facility calibration before the tomography system was available and also as validation data for the tomography system. A comparison between the laser sheet system and light extinction tomography resulting data are also presented. Very good agreement of imaged intensity and water content is demonstrated for both techniques. Also, comparative studies between the two techniques show excellent agreement in calculation of bulk total water content averaged over the center of the pipe.

Bencic, Timothy J.↗
DOE OSTI2023

Relationships between Water’s Structure and Solute Affinity at Polypeptoid Brush Surfaces

Excellent antifouling surfaces are generally thought to create a tightly bound layer of water that resists solute adsorption, and highly hydrophilic surfaces such as those with zwitterionic functionalities are of significant current interest as antifoulant strategies. Furthermore, despite significant proofs-of-concept, we still lack a fundamental understanding of how the nanoscopic structure of this hydration layer translates to reduced fouling, how surface chemistry can be tuned to achieve antifouling through hydration water, and why, in particular, zwitterionic surfaces seem so promising. Here, we use molecular dynamics simulations and free energy calculations to investigate the molecular relationships among surface chemistry, hydration water structure, and surface–solute affinity across a variety of surface-decorated chemistries. Specifically, we consider polypeptoid-decorated surfaces that display well-known experimental antifouling capabilities and that can be synthesized sequence specifically, with precise backbone positioning of, e.g., charged groups. Through simulations, we calculate the affinities of a range of small solutes to polypeptoid brush surfaces of varied side-chain chemistries. We then demonstrate that measures of the structure of surface hydration water in response to a particular surface chemistry signal solute–surface affinity; specifically, we find that zwitterionic chemistries produce solute–surface repulsion through highly coordinated hydration water while suppressing tetrahedral structuring around the solute, in contrast to uncharged surfaces that show solute–surface affinity. Based on the relationship of this structural perturbation to the affinity of small-molecule solutes, we propose a molecular mechanism by which zwitterionic surface chemistries enhance solute repulsion, with broader implications for the design of antifouling surfaces.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
NASA NTRS1997

Super-Compact Laser

Microcosm, Inc. produced the portable Farfield-2 laser for field applications that require high power pulsed illumination. The compact design was conceived through research at Goddard Space Flight Center on laser instruments for space missions to carry out geoscience studies of Earth. An exclusive license to the key NASA patent for the compact laser design was assigned to Microcosm. The FarField-2 is ideal for field applications, has low power consumption, does not need water cooling or gas supplies, and produces nearly ideal beam quality. The properties of the laser also make it effective over long distances, which is one reason why NASA developed the technology for laser altimeters that can be toted aboard spacecraft. Applications for the FarField-2 include medicine, biology, and materials science and processing, as well as diamond marking, semiconductor line-cutting, chromosome surgery, and fluorescence microscopy.

Source record↗
NASA NTRS2002

Leveraging Improvements in Precipitation Measuring from GPM Mission to Achieve Prediction Improvements in Climate, Weather and Hydrometeorology

The main scientific goal of the GPM mission, currently planned for start in the 2007 time frame, is to investigate important scientific problems arising within the context of global and regional water cycles. These problems cut across a hierarchy of scales and include climate-water cycle interactions, techniques for improving weather and climate predictions, and better methods for combining observed precipitation with hydrometeorological prediction models for applications to hazardous flood-producing storms, seasonal flood/draught conditions, and fresh water resource assessments. The GPM mission will expand the scope of precipitation measurement through the use of a constellation of some 9 satellites, one of which will be an advanced TRMM-like "core" satellite carrying a dual-frequency Ku-Ka band precipitation radar and an advanced, multifrequency passive microwave radiometer with vertical-horizontal polarization discrimination. The other constellation members will include new dedicated satellites and co-existing Operational/research satellites carrying similar (but not identical) passive microwave radiometers. The goal of the constellation is to achieve approximately 3-hour sampling at any spot on the globe. The constellation's orbit architecture will consist of a mix of sun-synchronous and non-sun-synchronous satellites with the core satellite providing measurements of cloud-precipitation microphysical processes plus calibration-quality rainrate retrievals to be used with the other retrieval information to ensure bias-free constellation coverage. GPM is organized internationally, currently involving a partnership between NASA in the US and the National Space Development Agency in Japan. Additionally, the program is actively pursuing agreements with other international partners and domestic scientific agencies and institutions, as well as participation by individual scientists from academia, government, and the private sector to fulfill mission goals and to pave the way for what ultimately is expected to become an internationally-organized operational global precipitation observing system. Notably, the broad societal applications of GPM are reflected in the United Nation s identification of this mission as a foremost candidate for its Peaceful Uses of Space Program. In this presentation, an overview of the GPM mission design will be presented, followed by an explanation of its scientific agenda as an outgrowth of making improvements in rain retrieval accuracy, microphysics dexterity, sampling frequency, and global coverage. All of these improvements offer new means to observe variability in precipitation and water cycle fluxes and to achieve improved predictability of weather, climate, and hydrometeorology. Specifically, the scientific agenda of GPM has been designed to leverage the measurement improvements to improve prognostic model performance, particularly quantitative precipitation forecasting and its linked phenomena at short, intermediate, and extended time scales. The talk will address how GPM measurements will enable better detection of accelerations and decelerations in regional and global water cycle processes and their relationship to climate variability, better impacts of precipitation data assimilation on numerical weather prediction and global climate reanalysis, and better performance from basin scale hydrometeorological models for short and long term flood-drought forecasting and seasonal fresh water resource assessment. Improved hydrometeorological forecasting will be possible by using continuous global precipitation observations to obtain better closure in water budgets and to generate more realistic forcing of the models themselves to achieve more accurate estimates of interception, infiltration, evaporation/transpiration fluxes, storage, and runoff.

Smith, Eric A.↗
NASA NTRS2003

Anticipated Improvements in Precipitation Physics and Understanding of Water Cycle from GPM Mission

The GPM mission is currently planned for start in the late-2007 to early-2008 time frame. Its main scientific goal is to help answer pressing scientific problems arising within the context of global and regional water cycles. These problems cut across a hierarchy of scales and include climate-water cycle interactions, techniques for improving weather and climate predictions, and better methods for combining observed precipitation with hydrometeorological prediction models for applications to hazardous flood-producing storms, seasonal flood/draught conditions, and fresh water resource assessments. The GPM mission will expand the scope of precipitation measurement through the use of a constellation of some 9 satellites, one of which will be an advanced TRMM-like core satellite carrying a dual-frequency Ku-Ka band precipitation radar and an advanced, multifrequency passive microwave radiometer with vertical-horizontal polarization discrimination. The other constellation members will include new dedicated satellites and co-existing operational/research satellites carrying similar (but not identical) passive microwave radiometers. The goal of the constellation is to achieve approximately 3-hour sampling at any spot on the globe -- continuously. The constellation s orbit architecture will consist of a mix of sun-synchronous and non-sun-synchronous satellites with the core satellite providing measurements of cloud-precipitation microphysical processes plus calibration-quality rainrate retrievals to be used with the other retrieval information to ensure bias-free constellation coverage. GPM is organized internationally, involving existing, pending, projected, and under-study partnerships which will link NASA and NOAA in the US, NASDA in Japan, ESA in Europe, ISRO in India, CNES in France, and possibly AS1 in Italy, KARI in South Korea, CSA in Canada, and AEB in Brazil. Additionally, the program is actively pursuing agreements with other international collaborators and domestic scientific agencies and institutions, as well as participation by individual scientists from academia, government, and the private sector to fulfill mission goals and to pave the way for what is expected to become an internationally-organized operational global precipitation observing system. Notably, the broad societal applications of GPM are reflected in the United Nation s identification of GPM as a foremost candidate for its Peaceful Uses of Space Program. An overview of the GPM mission design is given, followed by an explanation of its scientific agenda as an outgrowth of making improvements in rain retrieval accuracy, microphysics dexterity, sampling frequency, and global coverage. All of these improvements offer new means to observe variability in precipitation and water cycle fluxes and to achieve improved predictability of weather, climate, and hydrometeorology. Specifically, the scientific agenda of GPM has been designed to leverage the measurement improvements to improve prognostic model performance, particularly quantitative precipitation forecasting and its linked phenomena at short, intermediate, and extended time scales. The talk addresses how GPM measurements will enable better detection of accelerations and decelerations in regional and global water cycle processes and their relationship to climate variability, better impacts of precipitation data assimilation on numerical weather prediction and global climate reanalysis, and better performance from basin scale hydrometeorological models for short and long term flood-drought forecasting and seasonal fresh water resource assessment. These improvements become possible by using more accurate, more microphysically-centric, more frequent, and fully global precipitation observations to achieve better water budget closure and to provide more realistic forcing and assessment of prediction models.

Smith, Eric A.↗