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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 127 records · Page 7
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2024

Scalable and Quench-Free Processing of Metal Halide Perovskites in Ambient Conditions

With the rise of global warming and the growing energy crisis, scientists have pivoted from typical resources to look for new materials and technologies. Perovskite materials hold the potential for making high-efficiency, low-cost solar cells through solution processing of Earth-abundant materials; however, scalability, stability, and durability remain key challenges. In order to transition from small-scale processing in inert environments to higher throughput processing in ambient conditions, the fundamentals of perovskite crystallization must be understood. Classical nucleation theory, the LaMer relation, and nonclassical crystallization considerations are discussed to provide a mechanism by which a gellan gum (GG) additive—a nontoxic polymeric saccharide—has enabled researchers to produce quality halide perovskite thin-film blade coated in ambient conditions without a quench step. Furthermore, we report on the improved stability and durability properties inherent to these films, which feature improved morphologies and optoelectronic properties compared to films spin-coated in a glovebox with antisolvent. We tune the amount of GG in the perovskite precursor and study the interplay between GG concentration and processability, morphological control, and increased stability under humidity, heat, and mechanical testing. The simplicity of this approach and insensitivity to environmental conditions enable a wide process window for the production of low-defect, mechanically robust, and operationally stable perovskites with fracture energies among the highest obtained for perovskites.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Signal propagation in reversible digital mechanics

Digital mechanics explores information processing through binary, mechanical circuits. This work demonstrates a flexural, mechanical integrated circuit (m-IC) that achieves reversible, non-reciprocal signal propagation through integrated AND logic and memory. Our approach exploits sequential bistable transitions with symmetric energy wells, tunable stiffness, impedance matching, and AND gate non-linearity, to enable signal propagation, repeatability, and reversibility. We present a generalized model of logic kinematics and energetics, validated experimentally, to study energy flows, quantify energetic limits, and identify operating regimes for reversible logic. Macro-scale experiments confirm propagation dynamics, and new fabrication methods extend the architecture to micro-scale devices. By achieving controlled, reversible signal transmission across interconnected logic and memory, this work establishes a scalable platform for robust mechanical computing and adaptive sensing.

Johnson, Hilary A. [Lawrence Livermore National La↗
DOE OSTI2025

Confinement-Driven Segregation Enables Glassy Polymer Hybrid Materials Featuring Disordered Hyperuniformity and Integrated Self-Healing

The blending of glassy copolymer-brush modified colloids with a viscoelastic linear copolymer featuring intrinsic self-healing enabled disordered hyperuniform hybrid materials that combined mechanical robustness with structural color, processability, environmental stability, and the ability to recover structure and properties after incurring physical damage via ‘integrated self-healing’. Symmetric linear n-butyl acrylate/methyl methacrylate (BA/MMA) were co-assembled with asymmetric glassy BA/MMA statistical copolymer brush (silica) particles. ‘Confinement-driven segregation’ resulted in a microphase-separated morphology in which the linear copolymer resided within the interstitial regions of a rigid (∼1 GPa) copolymer brush particle template with disordered hyperuniform microstructure. Diffusion of the self-healing copolymer additive into damage regions drove the recovery after damage, along with the restoration of structural color due to the materials hyperuniform microstructure. The synergistic action of intrinsic and extrinsic healing mechanisms could provide a versatile platform for the bottom-up fabrication of multifunctional hybrid materials with increased damage resistance and functional longevity.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Innovations in Direct Air Capture: Unveiling a Simple and Robust Synthesized Fibrous Amine-functionalized Matrix (FAM) Sorbent for Commercial Scale-up

The escalating challenge of climate change necessitates innovative solutions in the realm of carbon management, particularly in mitigating the impact of fossil fuel emissions. Direct Air Capture (DAC) technology emerged as a critical component within the spectrum of Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) solutions, offering the distinct advantage of directly removing CO2 from the atmosphere irrespective of the source. This attribute grants DAC systems unparalleled flexibility in deployment locations and the potential to make substantial contributions to lowing atmospheric CO2 levels. The success of DAC technologies significantly depends on the development of an efficient, economical sorbent capable of selective and durable CO2 capture from ambient air. Recent advancements in material science have led to the exploration of amine-functionalized sorbents, hollow fiber sorbents and membranes, and other novel materials designed to meet these criteria. This study explores a novel Fibrous Amine-functionalized Matrix (FAM) sorbent. The FAM sorbent distinguished itself through its mechanical robustness, a streamlined synthesis process, and the capability for low-temperature regeneration (is 90 oC really low temperature?). FAM’s exceptional adsorption-desorption kinetics enable swift CO2 capture and release, crucial for the viability of DAC on a commercial scale. The synthesis process involves a simple dip-coating technique, allowing crosslinked amines to coat glass substrates.

Wang, Qiuming↗
DOE OSTI2025

In-situ polymerized and crosslinked electrolytes with interchangeable Li/Na transport for battery applications

The next generation of batteries requires electrolytes with high conductivity, mechanical stability, good adhesion with electrodes, wide electrochemical windows, and scalability. The present study introduces a concept of doped quasi single-ion conducting copolymers based on methacrylate-(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (TFSI) and vinyl ethylene carbonate which at room temperature are mechanically robust and display ionic conductivities of ~0.1 mS/cm. These electrolytes can be polymerized/crosslinked in-situ, making them easily implementable in current battery manufacturing technologies. They also allow for switching between Li + and Na + transport using simple chemistry procedures. To demonstrate their potential for battery applications, the newly developed Li conductors have been tested in symmetric cells, exhibiting overall impedance below 350 Ohm and plating/stripping stability up to 1 mA/cm 2 . Moreover, lithium metal batteries incorporating this electrolyte and high-voltage Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC) cathodes show good capacity retention (~79%) during charging and discharging for 80 cycles at C/10 rate and a Coulombic efficiency close to 100% in the entire measurement range. The compositional, mechanical and electrochemical versatility of these electrolytes opens new venues for the design of polymer-based batteries capable of fast charging and extended cycle life, aligning with the current global green energy storage strategies.

Polymer electrolytes↗
DOE OSTI2021

Comparison of the Mechanical Properties of a Conjugated Polymer Deposited Using Spin Coating, Interfacial Spreading, Solution Shearing, and Spray Coating

The mechanical properties of π-conjugated (semiconducting) polymers are a key determinant of the stability and manufacturability of devices envisioned for applications in energy and healthcare. These properties—including modulus, extensibility, toughness, and strength—are influenced by the morphology of the solid film, which depends on the method of processing. To date, the majority of work done on the mechanical properties of semiconducting polymers has been performed on films deposited by spin coating, a process not amenable to the manufacturing of large-area films. Here, we compare the mechanical properties of thin films of regioregular poly(3-heptylthiophene) (P3HpT) produced by three scalable deposition processes—interfacial spreading, solution shearing, and spray coating—and spin coating (as a reference). Our results lead to four principal conclusions. (1) Spray-coated films have poor mechanical robustness due to defects and inhomogeneous thickness. (2) Sheared films show the highest modulus, strength, and toughness, likely resulting from a decrease in free volume. (3) Interfacially spread films show a lower modulus but greater fracture strain than spin-coated films. (4) The trends observed in the tensile behavior of films cast using different deposition processes held true for both P3HpT and poly(3-butylthiophene) (P3BT), an analogue with a higher glass transition temperature. Grazing incidence X-ray diffraction and ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy reveal many notable differences in the solid structures of P3HpT films generated by all four processes. Herein, while these morphological differences provide possible explanations for differences in the electronic properties (hole mobility), we find that the mechanical properties of the film are dominated by the free volume and surface topography. In field-effect transistors, spread films had mobilities more than 1 magnitude greater than any other films, likely due to a relatively high proportion of edge-on texturing and long coherence length in the crystalline domains. Overall, spread films offer the best combination of deformability and charge-transport properties.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
NASA NTRS2006

Performance and Reliability of Solid Tantalum Capacitors at Cryogenic Conditions

Performance of different types of solid tantalum capacitors was evaluated at room and low temperatures, down to 15 K. The effect of temperature on frequency dependencies of capacitance, effective series resistances (ESR), leakage currents, and breakdown voltages has been investigated and analyzed. To assess thermo-mechanical robustness of the parts, several groups of loose capacitors and those soldered on FR4 boards were subjected to multiple (up to 500) temperature cycles between room temperature and 77 K. Experiments and mathematical modeling have shown that degradation in tantalum capacitors at low temperatures is mostly due to increasing resistance of the manganese cathode layer, resulting in substantial decrease of the roll-off frequency. Absorption currents follow a power law, I approximately t(sup -m), with the exponent m varying from 0.8 to 1.1. These currents do not change significantly at cryogenic conditions and the value of the exponent remains the same down to 15 K. Variations of leakage currents with voltage can be described by Pool-Frenkel and Schottky mechanisms of conductivity, with the Schottky mechanism prevailing at cryogenic conditions. Breakdown voltages of tantalum capacitors increase and the probability of scintillations decreases at cryogenic temperatures. However, breakdown voltages measured during surge current testing decrease at liquid nitrogen (LN) compared to room-temperature conditions. Results of temperature cycling suggest that tantalum capacitors are capable of withstanding multiple exposures to cryogenic conditions, but the probability of failures varies for different part types.

Teverovsky, Alexander↗
DOE OSTI2024

Advancements in Direct Air Capture: Unveiling a Simple and Robust Synthesized Fibrous Amine-functionalized Matrix (FAM) Sorbent for Commercial Scale-up

The escalating challenge of climate change necessitates innovative solutions in the realm of carbon management, particularly in mitigating the impact of fossil fuel emissions. Direct Air Capture (DAC) technology emerges as a critical component within the spectrum of Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) solutions, offering the distinct advantage of directly removing CO2 from the atmosphere irrespective of the source. This attribute grants DAC systems unparalleled flexibility in deployment location sand the potential to make substantial contributions to lowing atmospheric CO2 levels. The success of DAC technologies significantly depends on the development of efficient, economical sorbent capable of selective and durable CO2 capture from ambient air. Recent advancements in material science have led to the exploration of amine-functionalized sorbents, hollow fiber sorbents and membranes, and other novel materials designed to meet these criteria. This study introduces a significant advancement in DAC technology with the development of a Fibrous Amine-functionalized Matrix (FAM) sorbent. The FAM sorbent distinguished itself through its mechanical robustness, a streamlined synthesis process, and the capability for low-temperature regeneration. Its exceptional adsorption-desorption kinetics enable swift CO2 capture and release, crucial for the viability of DAC on a commercial scale.

Wang, Qiuming↗
DOE OSTI2026

Dynamic Diketoenamine Crosslinking Unlocks Vinyl Polymer Vitrimers From β ‐Triketone Chemistry

Covalent adaptable networks (CANs) offer a compelling strategy to unite the mechanical robustness of thermosets with the reprocessability of thermoplastics, yet achieving simultaneous durability, processability, and true recyclability remains challenging. We introduce diketoenamine (DKE) vitrimers derived from β-triketone methacrylate monomers and demonstrate how rational monomer design dictates network processability, viscoelasticity, and recyclability. By systematically varying the spacer length between the β-triketone (TK) moiety and the polymer backbone, we identify a key structure–property relationship that dictates vitrimer behavior. Networks bearing TK pendants minimally displaced from the backbone suppress creep but exhibit limited stress relaxation, whereas extended spacers yield lower glass transition temperatures, higher effective crosslink densities, and efficient stress dissipation, enabling optical transparency and reprocessability. Extending this platform to ultra-high molecular-weight prepolymers introduces physical entanglements as secondary crosslinks, further enhancing dimensional stability without compromising processability. Both mechanical and chemical recycling validate the closed-loop circularity of these materials. Furthermore, these results establish TK methacrylates as a versatile platform for designing high-performance vitrimers that integrate durability, reprocessability, and true closed-loop recyclability.

closed-loop recyclability↗
DOE OSTI2025

A cost-effective all-in-one halide material for all-solid-state batteries

All-solid-state batteries require advanced cathode designs to realize their potential for high energy density and economic viability. Integrated all-in-one cathodes, which eliminate inactive conductive additives and heterogeneous interfaces, hold promise for substantial energy and stability gains but are hindered by materials lacking sufficient Li + /e − conductivity, mechanical robustness and structural stability. Here, in this work, we present Li 1.3 Fe 1.2 Cl 4 , a cost-effective halide material that overcomes these challenges. Leveraging reversible Fe 2+ /Fe 3+ redox and rapid Li + /e − transport within its framework, Li 1.3 Fe 1.2 Cl 4 achieves an electrode energy density of 529.3 Wh kg −1 versus Li + /Li. Critically, Li 1.3 Fe 1.2 Cl 4 shows unique dynamic properties during cycling, including reversible local Fe migration and a brittle-to-ductile transition that confers self-healing behaviour. This enables exceptional cycling stability, maintaining 90% capacity retention for 3,000 cycles at a rate of 5 C. Integration of Li 1.3 Fe 1.2 Cl 4 with a nickel-rich layered oxide further increases the energy density to 725.6 Wh kg −1 . By harnessing the advantageous dynamic mechanical and diffusion properties of all-in-one halides, this work establishes all-in-one halides as an avenue for energy-dense, durable cathodes in next-generation all-solid-state batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

In‐Scribe Silane Bonding for Mechanical Reinforcement of Perovskite Photovoltaic Modules

Despite the extraordinary rise in power conversion efficiency over the last decade, metal halide perovskite (MHP) photovoltaics remain more mechanically fragile than other PV technologies. In this work, the scribe area, created by the monolithic interconnection of thin-film solar cells, is used to extrinsically reinforce the mechanical robustness of packaged MHP solar modules. In contrast to the epoxy-based chemistries often leveraged in the MHP literature, silane-grafted polyolefin encapsulants are designed to form strong covalent bonds to oxide surfaces, specifically to glass and the transparent conductive oxide at the base of the scribe line. Pseudo-modules encapsulated with silane-grafted polyolefin are measured with more than an order-of-magnitude enhancement infracture energy from 0.27 ± 0.01 J·m −2 (no scribes) to 5.97 ± 0.42 J·m −2 (scribes perpendicular to delamination directioncovering ≈2.2% of the module area). The silane-grafted polyolefin retains strong adhesion even after undergoing an accelerated IEC 61215 thermal cycling test consisting of 250 cycles. We find that the in-scribe bonding allows perovskite modules to have adhesion strength comparable to commercial c-Si and CdTe technologies with only 5% reduction in the active module area. This manufacturing-compatible approach offers a practical solution to address the mechanical integrity challenges in MHP solar modules, regardless of cell architecture.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2020

Structural and Optical Response of Polymer-Stabilized Blue Phase Liquid Crystal Films to Volatile Organic Compounds

Engineering useful mechanical properties into stimuli-responsive soft materials without compromising their responsiveness is, in many cases, an unresolved challenge. For example, polymer networks formed within blue-phase liquid crystals (BPs) have been shown to form mechanically robust films, but the impact of polymer networks on the response of these soft materials to chemical stimuli has not been explored. In this work, we report on the response of polymer-stabilized BPs (PSBPs) to volatile organic compounds (VOCs, using toluene as a model compound) and compare the response to BPs without polymer stabilization and to polymerized nematic and cholesteric phases. We find that PSBPs generate an optical response to toluene vapor (change in reflection intensity under crossed polars) that is sixfold greater in sensitivity than the polymerized nematic or cholesteric phases and with a limit of detection (140 ± 10 ppm at 25 °C) that is relevant to the measurement of permissible exposure limits for humans. Additionally, when compared to BPs that have not been polymerized, PSBPs respond to a broader range of toluene vapor concentrations (5000 vs <1000 ppm) over a wider temperature interval (25–45 vs 45–53 °C). We place these experimental observations into the context of a simple thermodynamic model to explore how the PSBP response reflects the effect of toluene on competing contributions of double-twisted LC cylinders, disclinations, and polymer network to the free energy that controls the PSBP lattice spacing. Overall, we conclude that the mechanical and thermal stability of PSBPs, when combined with their optical responsiveness to toluene, make this class of self-supporting LCs a promising one as the basis of passive and compact (e.g., wearable) sensors for VOCs.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

A New Method for Creating Structured High-Performance Current Collectors for Electrochemical Applications

A significant challenge in many electrochemical systems is finding a stable, high-performing current collector material that is mechanically robust, adaptable in form factor, and free of precious metals. Titanium electrodes are robust in many of these regards but exhibit poor charge transfer performance due to self-passivation. Herein, a new materials processing paradigm based on the titanium/titanium nitride (Ti/TiN) system which allows for robust, stable, and low-resistance current collectors of arbitrary form factor is presented. Specifically, a gas-nitriding process for 3D-printed titanium electrodes that results in a 20-fold improvement of charge transfer characteristics relative to the untreated material is outlined. The ability to utilize 3D-structured current collectors with a net 40-fold improvement in performance over nonstructured electrodes is further demonstrated. This novel approach to creating electrochemical current collectors requires minimal laboratory resources and can be widely adapted for a variety of applications, including desalination, electrolysis, energy storage, and basic research. In conclusion, the work described herein provides both a means for accelerating research and opens the door to hierarchical tuneability for enhanced performance.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Design of Sodium Chalcohalide Solid Electrolytes with Mixed Anions for All‐Solid‐State Sodium‐Ion Batteries

Solid-state sodium-ion batteries (SSNIBs) have emerged as a promising alternative to lithium-ion systems for grid-scale energy storage, owing to sodium's abundance and the improved safety of solid-state designs. Among various solid-state electrolytes (SSEs), halide-based Na + SSEs offer high electrochemical stability but are limited by low ionic conductivity and poor thermal stability. Herein, a novel class of sodium hafnium chalcohalide SSEs is reported with a dual-anion (S 2− /Cl − ) framework, with a high ionic conductivity of 4.5 × 10 −4 S cm −1 . The incorporation of sulfur enhances Na⁺ mobility by reducing the migration barrier through increased anion polarizability and expanded diffusion pathways. Additionally, S 2− contributes to stronger interatomic bonding, leading to higher cohesive energy density, improved thermal stability, and mechanical robustness. These SSEs exhibit minimal sulfur oxidation and excellent chemical/electrochemical interface stability with different cathode materials, such as O3-layered NaNi 1/3 Fe 1/3 Mn 1/3 O 2 , P2/O3 layered Na 0.85 Mn 0.5 Ni 0.4 Fe 0.1 O 2 , and Na 3 V 2 (PO 4 ) 3 cathodes. As a result, SSNIBs with P2/O3 layered Na 0.85 Mn 0.5 Ni 0.4 Fe 0.1 O 2 employing the sodium hafnium chalcohalide SSEs demonstrate outstanding cycling performance, achieving a capacity retention of 88.5% after 200 cycles at 0.1 C. This study establishes a new design strategy for high-performance SSEs, demonstrating that mixed-anion frameworks offer a viable route to overcome the intrinsic limitations of single-anion electrolytes in next-generation SSNIBs.

DFT calculation↗
DOE OSTI2026

Powder‐to‐Film Conversion of Nickel Single‐Atom Catalysts into Binder‐Free and Resistant Electrodes

Although a few binder-free and self-supported single-atom electrodes have been reported, achieving mechanically robust, defect-engineered, and reproducible films that preserve atomic dispersion under electrochemical operation remains challenging. This work addresses this limitation by presenting a versatile and generalizable strategy to transform powders into standalone, defect-engineered thin films hosting atomically dispersed Ni centers within conductive 2D frameworks. The physicochemical and electronic properties of these materials are thoroughly characterized using a comprehensive set of spectroscopic and microscopic techniques and confirmed the homogeneous dispersion and monoatomic nature of the Ni centers (0.94 wt.%) on the electrode films. Electrochemical testing via cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy under a range of experimental conditions revealed that integration of Ni single atoms markedly enhanced performance and stability compared to carbon nanotube-only electrodes, maintaining integrity after 15 h of continuous operation. This improvement is accompanied by a notable reduction in charge transfer resistance (30.50 Ω) and an increase in double-layer capacitance (295.45 µF). Post-electrochemical analyses corroborated the structural integrity and robustness of the electrodes. Overall, this work bridges atomically precise catalysis and device-level electrochemistry, opening a route toward reproducible and scalable single-atom electrodes for sensing and energy conversion.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Designer Metasurfaces for Antireflective Applications Enabled by Advanced Nanoparticle Technology

Optic processing advances have shifted system limitations, with current constraints consisting of antireflective (AR) coatings applied to optics and the inability to reduce size, weight, and price. Metasurfaces, and more broadly metaoptics, provide an avenue to overcome these limitations. The ability to generate substrate-engraved metasurfaces that can be tailored is demonstrated within a broad design space to satisfy large-area AR applications for bandpass or broadband needs, demonstrating an optically equivalent surface roughness standard deviation of only 5 Å. Using an advanced nanoparticle masking approach, two metasurfaces are fabricated: 1) vertical sidewall nanofeature metasurface (MS) for AR applications at 351 nm, and 2) sloped sidewall MS designed for broadband AR applications. For the 351 nm MS, the reflectance is measured to be 0.127%. In the case of the sloped sidewall MS, the reflectance is measured to be <0.25% over 400–700 nm and <1% over 400–1100 nm. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first demonstration of a broadband AR capable of this performance. The tunability of these structures, with a parameter space spanning even more remarkable designs such as broader bands and acceptance angles, coupled with high laser-induced damage durability and mechanical robustness, displays the strength of metasurfaces for AR applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Superstructured Biomaterials Formed by Exchange Dynamics and Host–Guest Interactions in Supramolecular Polymers

Dynamic and reversible assembly of molecules is ubiquitous in the hierarchical superstructures of living systems and plays a key role in cellular functions. Recent work from the laboratory reported on the reversible formation of such superstructures in systems of peptide amphiphiles conjugated to oligonucleotides and electrostatically complimentary peptide sequences. Here, a supramolecular system is reported upon where exchange dynamics and host–guest interactions between β-cyclodextrin and adamantane on peptide amphiphiles lead to superstructure formation. Superstructure formation with bundled nanoribbons generates a mechanically robust hydrogel with a highly porous architecture that can be 3D printed. Functionalization of the porous superstructured material with a biological signal results in a matrix with significant in vitro bioactivity toward neurons that could be used as a supramolecular model to design novel biomaterials.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Deciphering the Dynamic Balance Between Solvation Strength and Polysulfides Reaction Heterogeneity in Practical Lithium‐Sulfur Batteries

Achieving stable interfacial chemistry in lithium–sulfur batteries under practical conditions remains a key barrier to commercialization. Here, we demonstrate that interfacial dynamics can be effectively regulated by coupling solvation-power control with intrinsic heterogeneity of sulfur redox chemistry through the introduction of a weakly solvating fluorinated cosolvent, LIB 1200ET (1200ET). Compared with conventional fluorinated ethers, 1200ET efficiently shifts Li + solvation environment toward a more non-coordinated configuration at low volume fractions, enabling substantial solvation modulation without significantly impairing sulfur redox kinetics. This solvation transition weakens Li + –solvent interactions while strengthening Li + –anion and Li + –lithium polysulfide (LPS) coordination, suppressing LPS solubility and promoting reconstruction of solid–electrolyte interphase (SEI). Regulated LPS chemistry, together with 1200ET, leads to formation of a S 4+ -rich, LiF-reinforced SEI with enhanced ionic conductivity and mechanical robustness. Spatially resolved sulfur K-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy on pouch cells reveals pronounced current-density-dependent chemical heterogeneity, distinguishing kinetically dominated and solvation-controlled regions. Under practical conditions (3.7 mg cm −2 sulfur loading, E/S = 6 µL mg −1 ), a single-layer pouch cell delivers 527 mAh g −1 over 200 cycles at C/3, while an Ah-level multilayer pouch cell achieves an energy density of 358 Wh kg −1 . These results establish non-coordinating cosolvent-driven solvation engineering as a scalable strategy for practical Li–S batteries.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗