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DOE OSTI2017

Analytical method of waste allocation in waste management systems: Concept, method and case study

Waste is not a rejected item to dispose anymore but increasingly a secondary resource to exploit, influencing waste allocation among treatment operations in a waste management (WM) system. The aim of this methodological paper is to present a new method for the assessment of the WM system, the “analytical method of the waste allocation process” (AMWAP), based on the concept of the “waste allocation process” defined as the aggregation of all processes of apportioning waste among alternative waste treatment operations inside or outside the spatial borders of a WM system. AMWAP contains a conceptual framework and an analytical approach. The conceptual framework includes, firstly, a descriptive model that focuses on the description and classification of the WM system. It includes, secondly, an explanatory model that serves to explain and to predict the operation of the WM system. The analytical approach consists of a step-by-step analysis for the empirical implementation of the conceptual framework. With its multiple purposes, AMWAP provides an innovative and objective modular method to analyse a WM system which may be integrated in the framework of impact assessment methods and environmental systems analysis tools. Its originality comes from the interdisciplinary analysis of the WAP and to develop the conceptual framework. AMWAP is applied in the framework of an illustrative case study on the household WM system of Geneva (Switzerland). It demonstrates that this method provides an in-depth and contextual knowledge of WM. - Highlights: • The study presents a new analytical method based on the waste allocation process. • The method provides an in-depth and contextual knowledge of the waste management system. • The paper provides a reproducible procedure for professionals, experts and academics. • It may be integrated into impact assessment or environmental system analysis tools. • An illustrative case study is provided based on household waste management in Geneva.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2014

Using MCDA and GIS for hazardous waste landfill siting considering land scarcity for waste disposal

Highlights: • Wasting land for the siting of hazardous waste landfills must be avoided. • The siting procedure is based on a land use map of potentially suitable areas. • All the waste facilities of the management system are simultaneously considered. • A case study is developed considering two multi-criteria techniques. • An innovative criteria weighting tool (PSW) is used in combination with the AHP. - Abstract: The main aim of this study was to develop a procedure that minimizes the wasting of space for the siting of hazardous waste landfills as part of a solid waste management system. We wanted to tackle the shortage of land for waste disposal that is a serious and growing problem in most large urban regions. The procedure combines a multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) approach with a geographical information system (GIS). The GIS was utilised to obtain an initial screening in order to eliminate unsuitable areas, whereas the MCDA was developed to select the most suitable sites. The novelty of the proposed siting procedure is the introduction of a new screening phase before the macro-siting step aimed at producing a “land use map of potentially suitable areas” for the siting of solid waste facilities which simultaneously takes into consideration all plant types. The issue of obtaining sites evaluations of a specific facility was coupled with the issue of not wasting land appropriate to facilitate other types of waste management options. In the developed case study, the use of an innovative criteria weighting tool (the “Priority Scale”) in combination with the Analytic Hierarchy Process was useful to easier define the priorities of the evaluation criteria in comparison with other classic methods such as the Paired Comparison Technique in combination with the Simple Additive Weighting method.

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DOE OSTI2017

Effect of a food waste disposer policy on solid waste and wastewater management with economic implications of environmental externalities

Highlights: • Integrating food waste disposers in waste management systems. • Emissions reduction can reach ∼42% depending on tested scenarios. • Economic gains can reach ∼28% including environmental externalities. • Variation in cost of sludge management exhibit a significant impact on savings. - Abstract: In this study, the carbon footprint of introducing a food waste disposer (FWD) policy was examined in the context of its implications on solid waste and wastewater management with economic assessment of environmental externalities emphasizing potential carbon credit and increased sludge generation. For this purpose, a model adopting a life cycle inventory approach was developed to integrate solid waste and wastewater management processes under a single framework and test scenarios for a waste with high organic food content typical of developing economies. For such a waste composition, the results show that a FWD policy can reduce emissions by nearly ∼42% depending on market penetration, fraction of food waste ground, as well as solid waste and wastewater management schemes, including potential energy recovery. In comparison to baseline, equivalent economic gains can reach ∼28% when environmental externalities including sludge management and emissions variations are considered. The sensitivity analyses on processes with a wide range in costs showed an equivalent economic impact thus emphasizing the viability of a FWD policy although the variation in the cost of sludge management exhibited a significant impact on savings.

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DOE OSTI2019

Online Waste Library (OWL) and Waste Forms Characteristics Annual Report

This report represents completion of milestone deliverable M2SF-19SNO10309013 "Online Waste Library (OWL) and Waste Forms Characteristics Annual Report" that reports annual status on fiscal year (FY) 2019 activities for the work package SF-19SN01030901 and is due on August 2, 2019. The online waste library (OWL) has been designed to contain information regarding United States (U.S.) Department of Energy (DOE)-managed (as) high-level waste (DHLW), spent nuclear fuel (SNF), and other wastes that are likely candidates for deep geologic disposal, with links to the current supporting documents for the data (when possible; note that no classified or official-use-only (OUO) data are planned to be included in OWL). There may be up to several hundred different DOE-managed wastes that are likely to require deep geologic disposal. This annual report on FY2019 activities includes evaluations of waste form characteristics and waste form performance models, updates to the OWL development, and descriptions of the management processes for the OWL. Updates to the OWL include an updated user's guide, additions to the OWL database content for wastes and waste forms, results of the beta testing and changes implemented from it. Also added are descriptions of the management/control processes for the OWL development, version control, and archiving. These processes have been implemented as part of the full production release of OWL (i.e., OWL Version 1.0), which has been developed on, and will be hosted and managed on, Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) systems. The version control/update processes will be implemented for updates to the OWL in the future. Additionally, another process covering methods for interfacing with the DOE SNF Database (DOE 2007) at Idaho National Laboratory on the numerous entries for DOE-managed SNF (DSNF) has been pushed forward by defining data exchanges and is planned to be implemented sometime in FY2020. The INL database is also sometimes referred to as the Spent Fuel Database or the SFDB, which is the acronym that will be used in this report. Once fully implemented, this integration effort will serve as a template for interfacing with additional databases throughout the DOE complex.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2024

The Utility of Waste Tank Historical Reviews in Bulk Waste Removal Operations at the Savannah River Site – 25271

SRMC is actively working to remove, treat, and dispose radioactive waste generated by the separation facilities at SRS since their initial operations in the 1950s. The separation facilities at SRS have produced nuclear materials for a variety of purposes, particularly national defense, and continue to support the disposition of spent fuel through the Accelerated Basin Deinventory program. In almost 70 years of operation, nearly 625,000 m3 (165 million gallons) of radioactive waste have been generated and transferred to the tank farm facilities at SRS [1]. As a result of volume reduction (e.g., evaporation) and waste solidification (e.g., vitrification), approximately 127,000 m3 (33.5 million gallons) of material remain as of June 30, 2024 [2]. This liquid waste has since been stored in 51 large underground waste tanks present on the site. These waste tanks may contain up to 4,921 m3 (1.3 million gallons) of radioactive waste each in the form of saltcake or sludge. SRMC’s contract is to treat and dispose of this waste, clean the tanks, and operationally close them. To date, 8 of the 51 waste tanks have been operationally closed. Waste retrieval and tank closure activities are ongoing in an additional 17 tanks through either operations in the field or in design [3].

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DOE OSTI2025

FY22 Development of Improved Grout Waste Forms for Supplemental Low Activity Waste Treatment

About 54 to 56 million gallons of radioactive mixed waste is currently stored in underground tanks at the United States Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) Hanford site in the State of Washington. This waste will be separated into low- and high activity waste fractions, which will then be vitrified respectively into Immobilized Low Activity Waste (ILAW) and Immobilized High Level Waste (IHLW) products for subsequent disposal. The ILAW product will be disposed of in an engineered facility at the Hanford site while the IHLW product is designed for acceptance into a national deep geological disposal facility for high level nuclear waste. Treatment of the tank waste will take place in the Hanford Tank Waste Treatment and Immobilization Plant (WTP), which is under construction. However, since the WTP Low Activity Waste (LAW) Vitrification Facility was not designed to process the entire inventory of Hanford LAW, up to half of the retrieved Hanford LAW will require supplemental immobilization. Immobilizing LAW in a cementitious waste form known as Cast Stone has been investigated as a possible candidate supplemental immobilization technology

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DOE OSTI2015

Special Analysis for the Disposal of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Low Activity Beta/Gamma Sources Waste Stream at the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site, Nevada National Security Site, Nye County, Nevada

This special analysis (SA) evaluates whether the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) Low Activity Beta/Gamma Sources waste stream (BCLALADOEOSRP, Revision 0) is suitable for disposal by shallow land burial (SLB) at the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site (RWMS) at the Nevada National Security Site (NNSS). The LLNL Low Activity Beta/Gamma Sources waste stream consists of sealed sources that are no longer needed. The LLNL Low Activity Beta/Gamma Sources waste stream required a special analysis because cobalt-60 (60Co), strontium-90 (90Sr), cesium-137 (137Cs), and radium-226 (226Ra) exceeded the NNSS Waste Acceptance Criteria (WAC) Action Levels (U.S. Department of Energy, National Nuclear Security Administration Nevada Field Office [NNSA/NFO] 2015). The results indicate that all performance objectives can be met with disposal of the LLNL Low Activity Beta/Gamma Sources in a SLB trench. The LLNL Low Activity Beta/Gamma Sources waste stream is suitable for disposal by SLB at the Area 5 RWMS. However, the activity concentration of 226Ra listed on the waste profile sheet significantly exceeds the action level. Approval of the waste profile sheet could potentially allow the disposal of high activity 226Ra sources. To ensure that the generator does not include large 226Ra sources in this waste stream without additional evaluation, a control is need on the maximum 226Ra inventory. A limit based on the generator’s estimate of the total 226Ra inventory is recommended. The waste stream is recommended for approval with the control that the total 226Ra inventory disposed shall not exceed 5.5E10 Bq (1.5 Ci).

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DOE OSTI2015

Special Analysis for the Disposal of the Sandia National Laboratory Classified Macroencapsulated Mixed Waste at the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site, Nevada National Security Site, Nye County, Nevada

This special analysis evaluates whether the Sandia National Laboratory (SNL) Classified Macroencapsulated Mixed Waste stream (ASLA000001007, Revision 4) is suitable for disposal by shallow land burial (SLB) at the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site (RWMS) at the Nevada National Security Site (NNSS). The SNL Classified Macroencapsulated Mixed Waste stream consists of debris from classified nuclear weapons components (SNL 2015). The SNL Classified Macroencapsulated Mixed Waste stream required a special analysis due to tritium (3H) exceeding the NNSS Waste Acceptance Criteria (WAC) Action Levels (U.S. Department of Energy, National Nuclear Security Administration Nevada Field Office [NNSA/NFO] 2015). The SNL Classified Macroencapsulated Mixed Waste stream had no significant effect on the maximum mean and 95th percentile results for the resident air pathway and all-pathways annual total effective dose (TED). The SNL Classified Macroencapsulated Mixed Waste stream increases the mean air pathway and all-pathways annual TED from approximately 100 to 200 years after closure. Addition of the SNL Classified Macroencapsulated Mixed Waste stream inventory shifts the maximum TED to approximately 100 years after closure and increases the TED for several alternative exposure scenarios. The maximum mean and the 95th percentile 222Rn flux density remain less than the performance objective throughout the compliance period. The SNL Classified Macroencapsulated Mixed Waste stream is suitable for disposal by SLB at the Area 5 RWMS. The waste stream is recommended for approval without conditions.

LNL↗
DOE OSTI2016

Liquid secondary waste. Waste form formulation and qualification

The Hanford Site Effluent Treatment Facility (ETF) currently treats aqueous waste streams generated during Site cleanup activities. When the Hanford Tank Waste Treatment and Immobilization Plant (WTP) begins operations, a liquid secondary waste (LSW) stream from the WTP will need to be treated. The volume of effluent for treatment at the ETF will increase significantly. Washington River Protection Solutions is implementing a Secondary Liquid Waste Immobilization Technology Development Plan to address the technology needs for a waste form and solidification process to treat the increased volume of waste planned for disposal at the Integrated Disposal Facility IDF). Waste form testing to support this plan is composed of work in the near term to demonstrate the waste form will provide data as input to a performance assessment (PA) for Hanford’s IDF.

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DOE OSTI2017

Transitioning from Construction to Startup for the Waste Treatment and Immobilization Plant's Low-Activity Waste Facility - 17284

The original design of the Waste Treatment and Immobilization Plant (WTP) required all waste be processed through the Pretreatment (PT) Facility in order to separate the low-activity waste and high-level waste streams. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Office of River Protection (ORP) has developed a sequenced approach to completing the WTP Project, beginning with delivering some liquid waste directly to the Low-Activity Waste (LAW) Facility, bypassing the PT Facility. This operating configuration is referred to as direct-feed LAW (DFLAW). The primary driver for the DFLAW approach is to enable startup and commissioning of the LAW Facility for low-activity waste processing prior to the completion and availability of the PT and High-Level Waste facilities. In March 2016, a federal judge amended the Consent Decree between DOE and the State of Washington to require completion of hot commissioning for the LAW Facility no later than December 31, 2023. During the next few years ORP and the WTP contractor will transition the project from completion of construction to the startup and commissioning phase for the LAW Facility and the associated support facilities. The WTP contractor has developed an integrated management process to successfully conduct facility startup testing for the WTP facilities required to support DFLAW. The WTP contractor will also develop a commissioning plan and facility transition plan. These plans will describe the strategy; schedule; and requirements for safe, efficient, and sequential startup, commissioning, and transfer of the WTP facilities to an operations contractor. The WTP contractor has also established a strategy to achieve operational readiness for the facilities required to support DFLAW consistent with DOE O 425.1D, Verification of Readiness to Start Up or Restart Nuclear Facilities and DOE O 413.3B, Program and Project Management for the Acquisition of Capital Assets. ORP has established a strategy for oversight of the WTP contractor's startup, commissioning, and readiness activities. The strategy also encompasses ORP's own activities to achieve readiness. (authors)

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DOE OSTI2020

Alternative Treatment of Defense Waste Processing Facility Recycle via Reuse of Existing Liquid Waste Facilities - 20097

The Defense Waste Processing Facility (DWPF) at Savannah River Site (SRS) has been immobilizing high level waste since 1996. The chemical process within DWPF generates a large volume of condensate, which is recycled to the SRS H-Area Tank Farm. The recycle stream includes a small quantity of sludge solids, as well as soluble cesium that is volatilized during melter operation. The recycle waste is currently received into a large, underground waste tank that separates insoluble solids via decanting. The supernate is treated by an evaporator with a concentrate stream that is stored for future processing. The evaporator overheads are collected and sent to the Effluent Treatment Project (ETP) for final polishing and testing prior to discharge to local surface water. Recycle storage and treatment as described above complicates the overall mission within the tank farms, which are primarily engaged in waste retrieval and preparation activities that support sludge and salt disposition, as well as tank characterization and closure. The need to devote a portion of available storage space to recycle treatment limits operational flexibility, and ultimately the DWPF recycle stream must be diverted to fully close all the SRS waste tanks. An alternative treatment process is being explored to decouple the recycle stream from the tank farm. The proposed treatment process will accomplish solids separation via crossflow filtration and will utilize a wiped film evaporator to volume-reduce the filtrate stream. Evaporator overheads will continue to be further processed in ETP while the solids stream and evaporator concentrate stream will be returned for reprocessing with the DWPF and Salt Waste Processing Facility (SWPF). This process will utilize existing facilities within DWPF and the tank farm that were previously dedicated to Interim Salt Disposition (ISD), but no longer have an identified mission with the startup of SWPF. The reuse of these facilities will remove several constraints from the current Liquid Waste (LW) System Plan without expanding the current footprint of Department of Energy Environmental Management (EM) infrastructure within LW. (authors)

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DOE OSTI2019

Thermodynamic assessment of the hollandite high‐level radioactive waste form

Abstract Hollandite has been studied as a candidate ceramic waste form for the disposal of high‐level radioactive waste due to its inherent leach resistance and ability to immobilize alkaline‐earth metals such as Cs and Ba at defined lattice sites in the crystallographic structure. The chemical and structural complexity of hollandite‐type phases developed for high‐level waste immobilization limits the systematic experimental research that is required to understand phase development due to the large number of potential additives and compositional ranges that must be evaluated. Modeling the equilibrium behavior of the complex hollandite‐forming oxide waste system would aid in the design and processing of hollandite waste forms by predicting their thermodynamic stability. Thus, a BaO–Cs 2 O–TiO 2 –Cr 2 O 3 –Al 2 O 3 –Fe 2 O 3 –FeO–Ga 2 O 3 thermodynamic database was developed in this work according to the CALPHAD methodology. The compound energy formalism was used to model solid solution phases such as hollandite while the two‐sublattice partially ionic liquid model characterized the oxide melt. Results of model optimizations are presented and discussed including a 1473 K isothermal BaO–Cs 2 O–TiO 2 pseudo‐ternary diagram that extrapolates phase equilibrium behavior to regions not experimentally explored.

Utlak, Stephen A.↗
DOE OSTI2017

UNREVIEWED DISPOSAL QUESTION EVALUATION: Disposal of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory General Radioactive Sources Low-Level Waste at the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site, Nevada National Security Site, Nye County, Nevada

This Unreviewed Disposal Question Evaluation (UDQE) assesses whether the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) General Radioactive Sources (ORNLSOURCES01, Revision 5 [ORNL 2017]) is suitable for shallow land burial (SLB) at the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site (RWMS) on the Nevada National Security Site (NNSS). Disposal of the ORNL General Radioactive Sources meets all U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Manual DOE M 435.1-1, “Radioactive Waste Management Manual,” Chapter IV, Section P performance objectives (DOE 1999).The ORNL General Radioactive Sources waste stream is recommended for acceptance with the following conditions: The total waste stream tritium (3H) inventory shall not exceed 5E10 Bq. The total waste stream strontium-90 (90Sr) inventory shall not exceed 5E9 Bq. The total waste stream cesium-137 (137Cs) inventory shall not exceed 2E11 Bq. The total waste stream radium-226 (226Ra) inventory shall not exceed 2E10 Bq. The total waste stream protactinium-231 (231Pa) inventory shall not exceed 2E9 Bq. The total waste stream uranium-234 (234U) inventory shall not exceed 5E9 Bq.

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DOE OSTI2015

Special Analysis for the Disposal of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory EnergyX Macroencapsulated Waste Stream at the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site, Nevada National Security Site, Nye County, Nevada

This special analysis (SA) evaluates whether the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) EnergyX Macroencapsulated waste stream (B LAMACRONCAP, Revision 1) is suitable for disposal by shallow land burial (SLB) at the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site (RWMS) at the Nevada National Security Site (NNSS). The LLNL EnergyX Macroencapsulated waste stream is macroencapsulated mixed waste generated during research laboratory operations and maintenance (LLNL 2015). The LLNL EnergyX Macroencapsulated waste stream required a special analysis due to tritium (3H), cobalt-60 (60Co), cesium-137 (137Cs), and radium-226 (226Ra) exceeding the NNSS Waste Acceptance Criteria (WAC) Action Levels (U.S. Department of Energy, National Nuclear Security Administration Nevada Field Office [NNSA/NFO] 2015).The results indicate that all performance objectives can be met with disposal of the waste stream in a SLB trench. Addition of the LLNL EnergyX Macroencapsulated inventory slightly increases multiple performance assessment results, with the largest relative increase occurring for the all-pathways annual total effective dose (TED). The maximum mean and 95th percentile 222Rn flux density remain less than the performance objective throughout the compliance period. The LLNL EnergyX Macroencapsulated waste stream is suitable for disposal by SLB at the Area 5 RWMS. The waste stream is recommended for approval without conditions.

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DOE OSTI2020

Reduction of the Waste Occupied Area by Nuclide Separation and Horizontal Emplacement of the Waste Packages - 20422

Two of the key objectives for realizing the advanced nuclear fuel cycle are to reduce the volume of high-level radioactive waste and to reduce the foot-print of the geological repository. To achieve these objectives, research and development on nuclide separation technologies is a prerequisite. In this context, it is necessary to consider the vitrification conditions and the design of the geological repository where separation technologies would be implemented to achieve effective reductions in the volume of vitrified waste and the foot-print of the geological repository. In this study, the effects of the vitrification conditions on the number of vitrified waste units and the disposal area were evaluated, based on the assumption that separation of Cs and Sr from the spent nuclear fuel had been performed. In addition, with reference to the design of the geological repository, the impact on the foot-print of the repository for different emplacement methods of the waste packages was examined. As a result, it was clarified that the waste-occupied area could be reduced by horizontal emplacement of the vitrified waste with low heat generation. In addition, it was demonstrated that a low waste-loaded vitrified waste contributed to a reduction in the foot-print of the geological repository in the case of horizontal emplacement, although the number of vitrified waste units increased. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2018

Inadvertent Disposal of Chromium Waste at the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site, Nevada National Security Site, Nevada

Nuclear Fuel Services, Inc. (NFS), a waste generator approved to ship waste to the Nevada National Security Site (NNSS), made 49 waste shipments in the period 2009 to 2015 that were subsequently determined to contain chromium that exceeded the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure regulatory limit, which would require the waste to carry hazardous waste code D007. One of the 49 shipments contained bottles of liquid blowback solution and was returned to NFS for disposition. The remaining 48 shipments consisted of a total of 93 disposal packages of chromium-containing waste that were disposed in seven low-level waste (LLW) cells at the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site (RWMS).

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DOE OSTI2018

Waste picker livelihoods and inclusive neoliberal municipal solid waste management policies: The case of the La Chureca garbage dump site in Managua, Nicaragua

Highlights: • Landfill modernization project in Nicaragua yields unintended consequences. • Enclosure of garbage site displaces hundreds of impoverished waste pickers. • Persistent social marginalization contributes to environmental degradation. • Sustainable development must incorporate concerns of informal waste pickers. - Abstract: The modernization (i.e. mechanization, formalization, and capital intensification) and enclosure of municipal solid waste management (MSWM) systems threaten waste picker livelihoods. From 2009 to 2013, a major development project, embodying traditional neoliberal policies with inclusive social policies, transformed the Managua, Nicaragua, municipal solid waste site from an open-air dump where as many as 2,000 informal waste pickers toiled to a sanitary landfill. To investigate waste pickers’ social and economic condition, including labor characteristics, household income, and poverty incidence, after the project’s completion, 146 semi-structured survey questionnaires were administered to four communities adjacent to the landfill and 45 semi-structured interviews were completed with key stakeholders. Findings indicate that hundreds of waste pickers were displaced by the project, employment benefits from the project were unevenly distributed by neighborhood, and informal waste picking endures due to persistent impoverishment, thereby contributing to continued social and economic marginalization and environmental degradation. The findings highlight the limitations of inclusive neoliberal development efforts to transform MSWM in a low-income country.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2017

A Critical Review of Ion Exchange in Nuclear Waste Glasses to Support the Immobilized Low-Activity Waste Integrated Disposal Facility Rate Model

There are over 50 million gallons of waste in underground tanks at the Hanford site in Washington State which was generated as a byproduct of nuclear materials fabrication for United States strategic defensive purposes. The waste, also known as high-level waste (HLW), is comprised of both radioactive and non-radioactive contaminants. To deal with the tank waste, the United States Department of Energy (DOE) plans to separate out the liquid, or supernatant, and salt-cake portions and treat them as low-activity waste (LAW). The LAW and HLW will be vitrified in separate facilities at the Hanford Tank Waste Treatment and Immobilization Plant (WTP). The LAW will be disposed of at the on-site Integrated Disposal Facility (IDF). The main species of concern in the immobilized low-activity waste (ILAW) include 99 Tc, 129 I, and U and other non-radioactive contaminants. Ultimately, it must be demonstrated that the contaminants released from the waste form pose minimal risk to humans and the environment. To aid in this demonstration, work is currently being done to expand the understanding of long-term glass waste form behavior, especially with regards to exposure to aqueous environments.

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