Engineering Papers⌕ Search

SEARCH · Engineering Papers

Results for “Room temperature ionic conductivity”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 127 records · Page 7
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

Effects of dilution in ionic liquid supercapacitors

Room-temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) are synthetic electrolytes that have a large electrochemical stability window, making them attractive candidates for electric double-layer capacitor (EDLC) applications. Due to their high viscosities and low ionic conductivities, RTILs are often diluted with organic solvent for practical use. Here, we study the effects of dilution on the performance of RTIL EDLCs using a simple mean-field model. We find that dilution diminishes the unfavorable hysteresis that results from a spontaneous surface charge separation (SSCS). As a result, the RTIL concentration can be used to modulate the proximity to the SSCS transition, and maximize capacitance. The interplay between the concentration and the correlation strength gives rise to complex zero-potential phase behavior, including a tricritical point and a λ-line, very similar to the Blume–Capel dilute Ising model. Additionally, electrodes that are solvophilic aid in the prevention of SSCS by drawing solvent molecules to the electrode and displacing ions. Solvophilic electrodes give rise to a phase transition at finite potential where the surface charge rapidly increases with a small increase in potential, leading to a substantial increase in capacitance and energy storage.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Multifunctional Coatings on Sulfide‐Based Solid Electrolyte Powders with Enhanced Processability, Stability, and Performance for Solid‐State Batteries

Abstract Sulfide‐based solid‐state electrolytes (SSEs) exhibit many tantalizing properties including high ionic conductivity and favorable mechanical properties for next‐generation solid‐state batteries. Widespread adoption of these materials is hindered by their intrinsic instability under ambient conditions, which makes them difficult to process at scale, and instability at the Li||SSE and cathode||SSE interfaces, which limits cell performance and lifetime. Atomic layer deposition is leveraged to grow thin Al 2 O 3 coatings on Li 6 PS 5 Cl powders to address both issues simultaneously. These coatings can be directly grown onto Li 6 PS 5 Cl particles with negligible chemical modification of the underlying material and enable exposure of powders to pure and H 2 O‐saturated oxygen environments for ≥4 h with minimal reactivity, compared with significant degradation of the uncoated powder. Pellets fabricated from coated powders exhibit ionic conductivities up to 2× higher than those made from uncoated material, with a simultaneous decrease in electronic conductivity and significant suppression of chemical reactivity at the Li‐SSE interface. These benefits result in significantly improved room temperature cycle life at high capacity and current density. It is hypothesized that this enhanced performance derives from improved intergranular properties and improved Li metal adhesion. This work points to a completely new framework for designing active, stable, and scalable materials for next‐generation solid‐state batteries.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Reorganization Energy of Electron Transfer in Ionic Liquids

We report bandshape analysis of charge-transfer optical bands in room-temperature ionic liquids (ILs) is performed to extract reorganization energy of electron transfer. Remarkably, the reorganization energies in ILs are close to those in cyclohexane. This result runs against common wisdom in the field since conducting ILs, characterized by an infinite static dielectric constant, and nonpolar cyclohexane fall to the opposite ends of the polarity scale based on their dielectric constants. Theoretical calculations employing structure factors of ILs from molecular dynamics simulations support low values of the reorganization energy. Standard dielectric arguments do not apply to solvation in ILs and nonergodic reorganization energies are required for a quantitative analysis.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Transforming an Ionic Conductor into an Electronic Conductor via Crystallization: In Situ Evolution of Transference Numbers and Structure in (La,Sr)(Ga,Fe)O 3–x Perovskite Thin Films

Mixed-conducting perovskites are workhorse electrochemically active materials, but typical high-temperature processing compromises their catalytic activity and chemo-mechanical integrity. Low-temperature pulsed laser deposition of amorphous films plus mild thermal annealing is an emerging route to form homogeneous mixed conductors with exceptional catalytic activity, but little is known about the evolution of the oxide-ion transport and transference numbers during crystallization. Here the coupled evolution of ionic and electronic transport behavior and structure in room-temperature-grown amorphous (La,Sr)(Ga,Fe)O 3-x films as they crystallize is explored. In situ ac-impedance spectroscopy with and without blocking electrodes, simultaneous capturing-synchrotron-grazing-incidence X-ray diffraction, dc polarization, transmission electron microscopy, and molecular dynamics simulations to evaluate isothermal and non-isothermal crystallization effects and the role of grain boundaries on transference numbers is combined. Ionic conductivity increases by ≈2 orders of magnitude during crystallization, with even larger increases in electronic conductivity. Consequently, as crystallinity increases, LSGF transitions from a predominantly ionic conductor to a predominantly electronic conductor. The roles of evolving lattice structural order, microstructure, and defect chemistry are examined. Grain boundaries appear relatively nonblocking electronically but significantly blocking ionically. The results demonstrate that ionic transference numbers can be tailored over a wide range by tuning crystallinity and microstructure without having to change the cation composition.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Boron phosphide as a p-type transparent conductor: Optical absorption and transport through electron-phonon coupling

Boron phosphide has recently been identified as a potential high-hole-mobility transparent conducting material. This promise arises from its low hole effective masses. However, boron phosphide has a relatively small, 2 eV, indirect bandgap which will affect its transparency. In this study, we computationally study both optical absorption across the indirect gap and phonon-limited electronic transport to quantify the potential of boron phosphide as a p-type transparent conductor. We find that phonon-mediated indirect optical absorption is weak in the visible spectrum and that the phonon-limited hole mobility is very high (around 900 cm 2 /Vs) at room temperature. This exceptional mobility comes from the combination of a low hole effective mass and very weak scattering by polar phonon modes. We rationalize the weak scattering by the less ionic bonding in boron phosphide compared to oxides. We suggest that this could be a general advantage of nonoxides for p-type transparent conducting applications. Using our computed properties, we assess the transparent conductor figure of merit of boron phosphide and show that it exceeds by one order of magnitude that of established p-type transparent conductors, confirming the potential of this material.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Flux Synthesis of A-site Disordered Perovskite La 0.5 M 0.5 TiO 3 (M$=$Li, Na, K) Nanorods Tailored for Solid Composite Electrolytes

Inorganic fillers play an important role in improving the ionic conductivity of solid composite electrolytes (SCEs) for Li-ion batteries. Among inorganic fillers, perovskite-type lithium lanthanum titanate (LLTO) stands out for its high bulk Li + conductivity on the order of 10 -3 S cm -1 at room temperature. According to a literature survey, the optimal LLTO filler should possess the following characteristics: i) a single-crystal structure to minimize grain boundaries; ii) a small particle size to increase the filler/polymer interface area; iii) a 1D morphology for efficient interface channels; and iv) cubic symmetry to facilitate rapid bulk Li + diffusion within the filler. However, the synthesis of single crystal, 1D LLTO nanomaterials with cubic symmetry is challenging. Herein, a flux strategy is developed to synthesize La 0.5 M 0.5 TiO 3 (LMTO, M$=$Li, Na, and K) single-crystal nanorods with an A-site-disordered, cubic perovskite phase. The flux media promotes the oriented growth of nanorods, prevents nanorods from sintering, and provides multiple alkali metal ion doping at M sites to stabilize the cubic phase. SCEs compositing the Li + -conducting LMTO nanorods as fillers and poly[vinylene carbonate- co -lithium sulfonyl(trifluoromethane sulfonyl)imide methacrylate] matrix exhibit more than twice the conductivity of the neat polymer electrolyte (30.6 vs 14.0 µS cm -1 at 303 K).

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Lithium Dendrite-Free Li 7 N 2 I-LiOH Solid Electrolytes for High Energy Lithium Batteries

All-solid-state lithium batteries (ASSLBs) hold great potential to improve the safety and energy density of today’s lithium-ion batteries by using non-flammable inorganic solid electrolytes. Solid electrolytes (SEs) are believed to prevent Li dendrite growth because of high mechanical strength and high Li+ transference numbers. Significant advances in SE have been achieved, among which, Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZO) and Li2S–P2S5 (LPS) are the most promising SEs for bulk-type solid-state lithium batteries because of high ionic conductivities (>10-4 S/cm2). However, in contrast to our expectations, the growth of lithium dendrites is not suppressed but is facilitated in LLZOs and LPSs regardless of dopants, porosity, and crystallinity of the electrolytes. Despite the unity Li transference number and over two-times of shear modulus than that of Li metal, the critical current densities for Li plating and stripping in these SEs are less than 1.0 mA cm-2, which is one-fourth to one-tenth of that in liquid electrolytes at room temperature. The incompatibility between LLZO and LPS with Li metal seriously limits the energy density of all-solid-state batteries. The mechanism for lithium dendrite formation and growth in SEs are still disputable. Lack of understanding of the Li dendrite formation mechanism seriously impeded the development of solid-state lithium batteries. The development of the criterion for Li dendrite suppression is essential for the success of solid electrolyte lithium batteries. In this project, a criterion for Li dendrite suppression will be developed through thermodynamics and kinetics analysis of lithium dendrite nucleation/growth, which will guide the solid-state electrolyte design. Li7N2I-LiOH, Li5NI2-LiOH and Li3YCl6 solid electrolyte with high ionic conductivity and low electronic conductivity were used to validate the criterion for lithium dendrite suppression. Different surface modifications were also explored to enhance the dendrite suppression capability of SSEs.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Addition of Chloroform in a Solvent-in-Salt Electrolyte: Outcomes in the Microscopic Dynamics in Bulk and Confinement

Solvent-in-salt electrolytes (SISEs) are a promising alternative to the electrolytes currently used in commercial devices. Despite the SISEs’ advantages, their utilization is not yet realized due to the poor mobility of their chemical species. Here, we explore this problem by adding chloroform to a SISE formed by acetonitrile and a Li-salt. First, we performed illustrative cycling experiments to highlight the potential of this approach. Then, we focused on the description of the microscopic dynamics of the electrolytes and exposed the relevant aspects to be considered for their optimal performance. While the conductivity at low temperatures may be enhanced by the addition of chloroform, only subtle changes occur at room temperature. As revealed by molecular dynamics simulations and quasielastic neutron scattering (QENS) experiments, this effect is related to the preservation of the structure expected for a highly concentrated solution and promotion of the formation of ionic aggregates. These outcomes occur despite the increase in the overall mobility of the chemical species. The dynamics of the electrolytes in porous carbon was also investigated using QENS. In these circumstances, low concentrations of chloroform lead to diffusivities of the molecular species higher than those observed for the bulk electrolytes. As chloroform’s concentration increases, no further changes in the diffusivities are observed. Nonetheless, chloroform is mostly immobilized on the carbon surfaces and this behavior may be intensified at compositions closer to the eutectic mixture.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

Solid State Ionics: Materials Development by Multiscale Modeling and Advanced Manufacturing Techniques

Solid-state ionic materials are an important enabling technology for energy conversion and storage. Solid-state batteries would be a safer and higher energy density alternative to commercially available lithium ion batteries (LIB), however their implementation requires ion conduction in solids at room temperature to occur on the same level as the current generation of liquid electrolytes. Microstructural modifications have been demonstrated to play a major role on ion transport through the control of grain boundary interfaces, which traditionally serve as “blocking” layers. Ultimately, these materials will be fabricated in thin films form as electrolytes in order to minimize ohmic losses in electrochemical devices. This work uses advanced manufacturing techniques in combination with theoretical modeling to implement a science-based approach in the deposition of thin films ion conductors with controlled microstructures used in ceramic energy conversion and storage devices.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Helical Covalent Polymers with Unidirectional Ion Channels as Single Lithium-Ion Conducting Electrolytes

Single-ion conducting polymer electrolytes have attracted great attention as safe alternatives to liquid electrolytes in high energy density lithium-ion batteries. Herein, we report the first example of a crystalline anionic helical polymer as a single lithium-ion conducting solid polymer electrolyte (SPE). Single-crystal X-ray analysis shows that the polymer folds into densely packed double helices, with bundles of unidirectional negatively charged channels formed that can facilitate lithium-ion transportation. Such a helical covalent polymer ( HCP) exhibits excellent room temperature lithium-ion conductivity (1.2 x 10 -3 S cm -1 ) in the absence of external lithium salts, a high transference number (0.84), low activation energy (0.14 eV), and a wide electrochemical stability window (0.2-5 V). We found that nonflammable, nonvolatile ionic liquid can serve as a solvating medium and excellent conductivity enhancer (>1000 times increase). These ion-conducting properties are comparable to the best polyethylene oxide-based polymer electrolytes mixed with lithium salts. Finally, we show that the solvated HCP SPE enables the reversible cycling of an all-solid-state cell prepared with a high-voltage NMC 811 cathode. Our study opens up new possibilities for developing next-generation high-performance solid-state electrolytes.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Perspectives for Polymer Electrolytes: A View from Fundamentals of Ionic Conductivity

We present a brief overview of current developments in the field of polymer electrolytes, with the focus on single-ion conducting polymers. The latter have significant advantages relative to electrolytes with dual-ion conductivity for use in energy storage devices. First we discuss various mechanisms of ionic conductivity in polymers and fundamental limitations imposed by these mechanisms. We also emphasize the role of ion–ion correlations in conductivity that are not negligible in concentrated and semidilute ionic systems. Next we discuss several classes of polymer electrolytes (gels, block copolymers, and composites) that are already employed or have good potential to be employed in current battery technologies. At the end we discuss perspectives for the design of dry single-ion conducting polymer electrolytes with required room temperature conductivity.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Effect of Propagating Dopant Reactivity on Lattice Oxygen Loss in LLZO Solid Electrolyte Contacted with Lithium Metal

Lithium lanthanum zirconium oxide (LLZO) is widely known as the most stable solid electrolyte against lithium metal electrodes. This thermodynamic stability can be lost by the presence of dopants which are required to stabilize the cubic phase of LLZO and can be reduced by lithium metal. However, the role of oxygen in such reactions is taken for granted. In this work, the reduction of Nb-substituted LLZO (Nb-LLZO) is explored by Li metal and shows that interfacial reactions propagate and lead to the decomposition with substantial Nb 5+ reduction deep into the bulk electrolyte. Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analyses show much of the reduction is due to oxygen vacancies formed, leading to increased electronic conductivity mapped with conductive Atomic Force Microscopy. Density functional theory calculations indicate oxygen release is favored by increased excess lithiation of Nb-LLZO. Electrochemical impedance of polycrystalline Nb-LLZO shows the continuous evolution of ionically resistive interphases near the lithium metal interface with Nb-LLZO while single crystals show little reactivity at room temperature and self-limiting reduction at 60°C. This work underlines the role of grain boundaries in propagating destructive solid electrolyte reactions and highlights previously unseen mechanisms involving lattice oxygen in LLZO.

Li metal, solid-state electrolytes↗
DOE OSTI2024

Pyrochlore-type lanthanide titanates and zirconates: Synthesis, structural peculiarities, and properties

This contribution provides a thorough examination of the structural characteristics of pyrochlore-type lanthanide titanates and zirconates Ln2Ti2O7 and Ln2Zr2O7, across various length scales. This paper also examines their processing, interesting physical properties (electrical, magnetic, and thermal characteristics), and responses to high pressure and ion irradiation. Brief sections on the elemental oxides' crystal chemistry, pertinent phase diagrams, and energetics of defect formation are also provided. Pyrochlore-type Ln2Ti2O7 and Ln2Zr2O7 stand out as truly multifunctional materials. Moreover, they have emerged as fascinating materials due to magnetic geometrical frustration, arising from the ordering of magnetic Ln3+ and non-magnetic Ti4+ (or Zr4+) cations into separate, interpenetrating lattices of corner-sharing tetrahedra. This results in a diverse array of exotic magnetic ground states, such as spin-ice (e.g., Dy2Ti2O7 or Ho2Ti2O7) or quantum spin ice (e.g., Tb2Ti2O7), observed at both low and room temperatures. They also exhibit varied electrical and electrochemical characteristics. Some members such as Gd2Zr2O7, function as fast ion conductors with a conductivity (σ) of ≈10−2 S·cm−1 at 800 °C and activation energy (Ea) ranging from 0.85 to 1.52 eV, depending on the degree of structural disorder. Others, such as Gd2TiMoO7, are mixed ionic-electronic conductors with σ ≈ 25 S·cm−1 at 1000 °C, making them promising candidate materials for applications in energy conversion and storage devices and oxygen separation membranes. Their exceptionally low thermal conductivity (e.g., κ ∼ 1.1–1.7 W·m−1·K−1 between 700 and 1200 °C for Ln2Zr2O7), close to the glass-like lower limit of highly disordered solids, positions them as valuable materials for thermal barrier coatings. They can also effectively accommodate actinides (e.g., Pu, Np, Cm, Am) in solid solutions and sustain prolonged exposure to radiation due to alpha-decay events, while preserving the integrity of the periodic atomic structure. Proposed as major components in actinide-bearing ceramics, they contribute to the long-term immobilization and disposal of long-lived waste radionuclides from nuclear programs. Some of these properties are displayed simultaneously, opening avenues for new applications. Despite the wealth of data available in the literature, this review highlights the need for a better understanding of order/disorder processes in pyrochlore-type materials and the influence of the structural length scale on their physical and chemical properties. Recent experimental evidence has revealed that pyrochlore short-range structure is far more complex than originally thought. Moreover, pyrochlore local structure is now believed to include short-range, lower symmetry, ordered domains, such as the orthorhombic weberite-type of structure. Notably, short- and long-range structures appear decoupled across different length scales and temperature regimes, and these differences persist even in well-ordered samples. We believe that the pyrochlore structure offers a unique opportunity for examining the interplay between chemical composition, defect chemistry, and properties. In Memoriam: Rodney C. Ewing, Fondly Remembered.

Physics↗
DOE OSTI2021

Optoelectronic memristor devices including one or more solid electrolytes with electrically controllable optical properties

An optoelectronic memristor includes a first electrode, a second electrode, and a solid electrolyte in between that is in electrical communication with the first electrode and the second electrode. The solid electrolyte has an electronic conductivity of about 10 −10 Siemens/cm to about 10 −4 Siemens/cm at room temperature. The first electrode, and optionally the second electrode, can be optically transparent at a specific wavelength and/or a wavelength range. A direct current (DC) voltage source is employed to apply an electric field across the solid electrolyte, which induces a spatial redistribution of ionic defects in the solid electrolyte. In turn, this causes a change in electrical resistance of the solid electrolyte. The application of the electric field can also cause a change in an optical property of the solid electrolyte at the specific wavelength, and/or at the wavelength range (or a portion thereof).

Defferriere, Thomas↗
NASA NTRS1924

The effect of electrode temperature on the sparking voltage of short spark gaps

This report presents the results of an investigation to determine what effect the temperature of spark plug electrodes might have on the voltage at which a spark occurred. A spark gap was set up so that one electrode could be heated to temperatures up to 700 degrees C., while the other electrode and the air in the gap were maintained at room temperature. The sparking voltages were measured both with direct voltage and with voltage impulse from ignition coil. It was found that the sparking voltage of the gap decreased materially with increase of temperature. This change was more marked when the hot electrode was of negative polarity. The phenomena observed can be explained by the ionic theory of gaseous conduction, and serve to account for certain hitherto unexplained actions in the operation of internal combustion engines. These results indicate that the ignition spark will pass more readily when the spark-plug design is such as to make the electrodes run hot. This possible gain is, however, very closely limited by the danger of producing preignition. These experiments also show that sparking is somewhat easier when the hot electrode (which is almost always the central electrode) is negative than when the polarity is reversed.

Silsbee, F B↗
DOE OSTI2024

Critical Role of Framework Flexibility and Disorder in Driving High Ionic Conductivity in LiNbOCl 4

Understanding Li-ion transport is key for the rational design of superionic solid electrolytes with exceptional ionic conductivities. LiNbOCl 4 is reported to be one of the most highly conducting materials in the recently realized new class of soft oxyhalide solid electrolytes, exhibiting an ionic conductivity of ~11 mS·cm -1 . Here, we apply X-ray/neutron diffraction and pair distribution function analysis - coupled with density functional theory/ab-initio molecular dynamics - to determine a structural model that provides a rationale for the high conductivity that we observe experimentally in this nanocrystalline solid. We show that it arises from unusually high framework flexibility at room temperature. This owes to isolated 1-D [NbOCl 4 ] - anionic chains which exhibit energetically favorable orientational disorder that is - in turn - correlated to multiple, disordered and equi-energetic Li + sites in the lattice. As the Li-ions sample the 3-D energy landscape with a fast predicted diffusion coefficient of 5.1 x 10 -7 cm 2 /s at room temperature (σ i calc = 17.4 mS·cm -1 ), the inorganic polymer chains can reorient or vice versa. The activation energy barrier for Li migration through the frustrated energy landscape is especially reduced by the elastic nature of the NbO 2 Cl 4 octahedra evident from very widely dispersed Cl-Nb-Cl bond angles in AIMD snapshots at 300 K. The phonon spectra are predominantly influenced by Cl vibrations in the low energy range, and there is strong overlap between the framework (Cl, Nb) and Li partial pDOS in the region between 1.2 - 4.0 THz. The framework flexibility is also reflected in a relatively low bulk modulus of 22 GPa. In conclusion, our findings pave the way for investigation of future “flex-ion” inorganic solids and open up a new direction for the design of high conductivity, soft solid electrolytes for all-solid-state batteries.

AIMD↗
DOE OSTI2023

Anion-tethered Single Lithium-ion Conducting Polyelectrolytes through UV-induced Free Radical Polymerization for Improved Morphological Stability of Lithium Metal Anodes

Single Li + ion conducting polyelectrolytes (SICs), which feature covalently tethered counter-anions along their backbone, have the potential to mitigate dendrite formation by reducing concentration polarization and preventing salt depletion. However, due to their low ionic conductivity and complicated synthetic procedure, the successful validation of these claimed advantages in lithium metal (Li 0 ) anode batteries remains limited. In this study, we fabricated a SIC electrolyte using a single-step UV polymerization approach. The resulting electrolyte exhibited a high Li + transference number (t + ) of 0.85 and demonstrated good Li + conductivity (6.3×10 -5 S/cm at room temperature), which is comparable to that of a benchmark dual ion conductor (DIC, 9.1×10 -5 S/cm). Benefitting from the high transference number of SIC, it displayed a three-fold higher critical current density (2.4 mA/cm 2 ) compared to DIC (0.8 mA/cm 2 ) by successfully suppressing concentration polarization-induced short-circuiting. Additionally, the t + significantly influenced the deposition behavior of Li0, with SIC yielding a uniform, compact, and mosaic-like morphology, while the low t + DIC resulted in a porous morphology with Li 0 whiskers. Using the SIC electrolyte, Li 0 ||LiFePO 4 cells exhibited stable operation for 4500 cycles with 70.5 % capacity retention at 22 °C.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Anion-tethered Single Lithium-ion Conducting Polyelectrolytes through UV-induced Free Radical Polymerization for Improved Morphological Stability of Lithium Metal Anodes

Single Li + ion conducting polyelectrolytes (SICs), which feature covalently tethered counter-anions along their backbone, have the potential to mitigate dendrite formation by reducing concentration polarization and preventing salt depletion. However, due to their low ionic conductivity and complicated synthetic procedure, the successful validation of these claimed advantages in lithium metal (Li 0 ) anode batteries remains limited. In this study, we fabricated a SIC electrolyte using a single-step UV polymerization approach. The resulting electrolyte exhibited a high Li + transference number (t + ) of 0.85 and demonstrated good Li + conductivity (6.3×10 -5 S/cm at room temperature), which is comparable to that of a benchmark dual ion conductor (DIC, 9.1×10 -5 S/cm). Benefitting from the high transference number of SIC, it displayed a three-fold higher critical current density (2.4 mA/cm 2 ) compared to DIC (0.8 mA/cm 2 ) by successfully suppressing concentration polarization-induced short-circuiting. Additionally, the t + significantly influenced the deposition behavior of Li 0 , with SIC yielding a uniform, compact, and mosaic-like morphology, while the low t + DIC resulted in a porous morphology with Li 0 whiskers. In conclusion, using the SIC electrolyte, Li 0 ||LiFePO 4 cells exhibited stable operation for 4500 cycles with 70.5 % capacity retention at 22 °C.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗