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NASA NTRS2003

Calcium/calmodulin-mediated signal network in plants

Various extracellular stimuli elicit specific calcium signatures that can be recognized by different calcium sensors. Calmodulin, the predominant calcium receptor, is one of the best-characterized calcium sensors in eukaryotes. In recent years, completion of the Arabidopsis genome project and advances in functional genomics have helped to identify and characterize numerous calmodulin-binding proteins in plants. There are some similarities in Ca(2+)/calmodulin-mediated signaling in plants and animals. However, plants possess multiple calmodulin genes and many calmodulin target proteins, including unique protein kinases and transcription factors. Some of these proteins are likely to act as "hubs" during calcium signal transduction. Hence, a better understanding of the function of these calmodulin target proteins should help in deciphering the Ca(2+)/calmodulin-mediated signal network and its role in plant growth, development and response to environmental stimuli.

NASA Discipline Plant Biology↗

NASA NTRS2002

The growing world of expansins

Expansins are cell wall proteins that induce pH-dependent wall extension and stress relaxation in a characteristic and unique manner. Two families of expansins are known, named alpha- and beta-expansins, and they comprise large multigene families whose members show diverse organ-, tissue- and cell-specific expression patterns. Other genes that bear distant sequence similarity to expansins are also represented in the sequence databases, but their biological and biochemical functions have not yet been uncovered. Expansin appears to weaken glucan-glucan binding, but its detailed mechanism of action is not well established. The biological roles of expansins are diverse, but can be related to the action of expansins to loosen cell walls, for example during cell enlargement, fruit softening, pollen tube and root hair growth, and abscission. Expansin-like proteins have also been identified in bacteria and fungi, where they may aid microbial invasion of the plant body.

NASA Discipline Plant Biology↗

NASA NTRS1999

Is skeletal muscle ready for long-term spaceflight and return to gravity?

It is now clear that prevention of muscle debilitation during spaceflight will require a broader approach than simple exercise aimed at strengthening of the muscle fibers. The levels of several hormones and receptors are altered by unloading and must be returned to homeostasis. Pharmacotherapy and gene transfer strategies to raise the relative level of structural proteins may minimize the problems faced by astronauts in readapting to Earth-gravity. Up to now, we have only minimally exploited microgravity for advancing our understanding of muscle biology. A research laboratory in the space station with a centrifuge facility (gravity control) is essential for conducting basic research in this field. Microgravity has proven an excellent tool for noninvasively perturbing the synthesis of muscle proteins in the search for molecular signals and gene regulatory factors influencing differentiation, growth, maintenance and atrophy of muscle. Understanding the relation between blood flow and interstitial edema and between workload and subsequent structural failure are but two important problems that require serious attention. The roles of hormones and growth factors in regulating gene expression and their microgravity-induced altered production are other urgent issues to pursue. These types of studies will yield information that advances basic knowledge of muscle biology and offers insights into countermeasure design. This knowledge is likely to assist rehabilitation of diseased or injured muscles in humans on Earth, especially individuals in the more vulnerable aging population and persons participating in strenuous sports. Will the skeletal muscle system be prepared for the increased exposure to microgravity and the return to gravity loading without injury when space station is operational? The answer depends in large part on continued access to space and funding of ground-based models and flight experiments. The previous two decades of spaceflight research have described the effects of microgravity on multiple systems. The next generation of experiments promises to be even more exciting as we are challenged to define the cellular and molecular mechanisms of microgravity-induced changes.

manned↗

NASA NTRS2003

The evolution of concepts of vestibular peripheral information processing: toward the dynamic, adaptive, parallel processing macular model

In a letter to Robert Hooke, written on 5 February, 1675, Isaac Newton wrote "If I have seen further than certain other men it is by standing upon the shoulders of giants." In his context, Newton was referring to the work of Galileo and Kepler, who preceded him. However, every field has its own giants, those men and women who went before us and, often with few tools at their disposal, uncovered the facts that enabled later researchers to advance knowledge in a particular area. This review traces the history of the evolution of views from early giants in the field of vestibular research to modern concepts of vestibular organ organization and function. Emphasis will be placed on the mammalian maculae as peripheral processors of linear accelerations acting on the head. This review shows that early, correct findings were sometimes unfortunately disregarded, impeding later investigations into the structure and function of the vestibular organs. The central themes are that the macular organs are highly complex, dynamic, adaptive, distributed parallel processors of information, and that historical references can help us to understand our own place in advancing knowledge about their complicated structure and functions.

Review, Tutorial↗

NASA NTRS2003

Administration of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug ibuprofen increases macrophage concentrations but reduces necrosis during modified muscle use

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that ibuprofen administration during modified muscle use reduces muscle necrosis and invasion by select myeloid cell populations. METHODS: Rats were subjected to hindlimb unloading for 10 days, after which they experienced muscle reloading by normal weight-bearing to induce muscle inflammation and necrosis. Some animals received ibuprofen by intraperitoneal injection 8 h prior to the onset of muscle reloading, and then again at 8 and 16 h following the onset of reloading. Other animals received buffer injection at 8 h prior to reloading and then ibuprofen at 8 and 16 h following the onset of reloading. Control animals received buffer only at each time point. Quantitative immunohistochemical analysis was used to assess the presence of necrotic muscle fibers, total inflammatory infiltrate, neutrophils, ED1+ macrophages and ED2+ macrophages at 24 h following the onset of reloading. RESULT: Administration of ibuprofen beginning 8 h prior to reloading caused significant reduction in the concentration of necrotic fibers, but increased the concentration of inflammatory cells in muscle. The increase in inflammatory cells was attributable to a 2.6-fold increase in the concentration of ED2+ macrophages. Animals treated with ibuprofen 8 h following the onset of reloading showed no decrease in muscle necrosis or increase in ED2+ macrophage concentrations. CONCLUSION: Administration of ibuprofen prior to increased muscle loading reduces muscle damage, but increases the concentration of macrophages that express the ED2 antigen. The increase in ED2+ macrophage concentration and decrease in necrosis may be mechanistically related because ED2+ macrophages have been associated with muscle regeneration and repair.

Non-NASA Center↗

NASA NTRS2003

Afferent innervation patterns of the saccule in pigeons

The innervation patterns of vestibular saccular afferents were quantitatively investigated in pigeons using biotinylated dextran amine as a neural tracer and three-dimensional computer reconstruction. Type I hair cells were found throughout a large portion of the macula, with the highest density observed in the striola. Type II hair cells were located throughout the macula, with the highest density in the extrastriola. Three classes of afferent innervation patterns were observed, including calyx, dimorph, and bouton units, with 137 afferents being anatomically reconstructed and used for quantitative comparisons. Calyx afferents were located primarily in the striola, innervated a number of type I hair cells, and had small innervation areas. Most calyx afferent terminal fields were oriented parallel to the anterior-posterior axis and the morphological polarization reversal line. Dimorph afferents were located throughout the macula, contained fewer type I hair cells in a calyceal terminal than calyx afferents and had medium sized innervation areas. Bouton afferents were restricted to the extrastriola, with multi-branching fibers and large innervation areas. Most of the dimorph and bouton afferents had innervation fields that were oriented dorso-ventrally but were parallel to the neighboring reversal line. The organizational morphology of the saccule was found to be distinctly different from that of the avian utricle or lagena otolith organs and appears to represent a receptor organ undergoing evolutionary adaptation toward sensing linear motion in terrestrial and aerial species.

NASA Discipline Neuroscience↗

NASA NTRS2000

Complement activation promotes muscle inflammation during modified muscle use

Modified muscle use can result in muscle inflammation that is triggered by unidentified events. In the present investigation, we tested whether the activation of the complement system is a component of muscle inflammation that results from changes in muscle loading. Modified rat hindlimb muscle loading was achieved by removing weight-bearing from the hindlimbs for 10 days followed by reloading through normal ambulation. Experimental animals were injected with the recombinant, soluble complement receptor sCR1 to inhibit complement activation. Assays for complement C4 or factor B in sera showed that sCR1 produced large reductions in the capacity for activation of the complement system through both the classical and alternative pathways. Analysis of complement C4 concentration in serum in untreated animals showed that the classical pathway was activated during the first 2 hours of reloading. Analysis of factor B concentration in untreated animals showed activation of the alternative pathway at 6 hours of reloading. Administration of sCR1 significantly attenuated the invasion of neutrophils (-49%) and ED1(+) macrophages (-52%) that occurred in nontreated animals after 6 hours of reloading. The presence of sCR1 also reduced significantly the degree of edema by 22% as compared to untreated animals. Together, these data show that increased muscle loading activated the complement system which then briefly contributes to the early recruitment of inflammatory cells during modified muscle loading.

NASA Discipline Musculoskeletal↗

NASA NTRS2000

Structural and functional remodeling of skeletal muscle microvasculature is induced by simulated microgravity

Hindlimb unloading of rats results in a diminished ability of skeletal muscle arterioles to constrict in vitro and elevate vascular resistance in vivo. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether alterations in the mechanical environment (i.e., reduced fluid pressure and blood flow) of the vasculature in hindlimb skeletal muscles from 2-wk hindlimb-unloaded (HU) rats induces a structural remodeling of arterial microvessels that may account for these observations. Transverse cross sections were used to determine media cross-sectional area (CSA), wall thickness, outer perimeter, number of media nuclei, and vessel luminal diameter of feed arteries and first-order (1A) arterioles from soleus and the superficial portion of gastrocnemius muscles. Endothelium-dependent dilation (ACh) was also determined. Media CSA of resistance arteries was diminished by hindlimb unloading as a result of decreased media thickness (gastrocnemius muscle) or reduced vessel diameter (soleus muscle). ACh-induced dilation was diminished by 2 wk of hindlimb unloading in soleus 1A arterioles, but not in gastrocnemius 1A arterioles. These results indicate that structural remodeling and functional adaptations of the arterial microvasculature occur in skeletal muscles of the HU rat; the data suggest that these alterations may be induced by reductions in transmural pressure (gastrocnemius muscle) and wall shear stress (soleus muscle).

Non-NASA Center↗

NASA NTRS2000

Spaceflight effects on cultured embryonic chick bone cells

A model calcifying system of primary osteoblast cell cultures derived from normal embryonic chicken calvaria has been flown aboard the shuttle, Endeavour, during the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) mission STS-59 (April 9-20, 1994) to characterize unloading and other spaceflight effects on the bone cells. Aliquots of cells (approximately 7 x 10(6)) grown in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) + 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) were mixed with microcarrier beads, inoculated into cartridge culture units of artificial hollow fiber capillaries, and carried on the shuttle. To promote cell differentiation, cartridge media were supplemented with 12.5 microg/ml ascorbate and 10 mM beta-glycerophosphate for varying time periods before and during flight. Four cartridges contained cells from 17-day-old embryos grown for 5 days in the presence of ascorbate prior to launch (defined as flight cells committed to the osteoblastic lineage) and four cartridges supported cells from 14-day-old embryos grown for 10 days with ascorbate before launch (uncommitted flight cells). Eight cartridges prepared in the same manner were maintained under normal gravity throughout the flight (control cells) and four additional identical cartridges under normal gravity were terminated on the day of launch (basal cells). From shuttle launch to landing, all cartridges were contained in closed hardware units maintaining 5% CO2, 37 degrees C, and media delivery at a rate of approximately 1.5 ml/6 h. During day 3 and day 5 of flight, duplicate aliquots of conditioned media and accumulated cell products were collected in both the flight and the control hardware units. At the mission end, comparisons among flight, basal, and control samples were made in cell metabolism, gene expression for type I collagen and osteocalcin, and ultrastructure. Both committed and uncommitted flight cells were metabolically active, as measured by glucose uptake and lactate production, at approximately the same statistical levels as control counterparts. Flight cells elaborated a less extensive extracellular matrix, evidenced by a reduced collagen gene expression and collagen protein appearance compared with controls. Osteocalcin was expressed by all cells, a result indicating progressive differentiation of both flight and control osteoblasts, but its message levels also were reduced in flight cells compared with ground samples. This finding suggested that osteoblasts subjected to flight followed a slower progression toward a differentiated function. The summary of data indicates that spaceflight, including microgravity exposure, demonstrably affects bone cells by down-regulating type I collagen and osteocalcin gene expression and thereby inhibiting expression of the osteogenic phenotype notably by committed osteoblasts. The information is important for insight into the response of bone cells to changes of gravity and of force in general.

Non-NASA Center↗

NASA NTRS2000

Effects of hindlimb unloading on neuromuscular development of neonatal rats

We hypothesized that hindlimb suspension unloading of 8-day-old neonatal rats would disrupt the normal development of muscle fiber types and the motor innervation of the antigravity (weightbearing) soleus muscles but not extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles. Five rats were suspended 4.5 h and returned 1.5 h to the dam for nursing on a 24 h cycle for 9 days. To control for isolation from the dam, the remaining five littermates were removed on the same schedule but not suspended. Another litter of 10 rats housed in the same room provided a vivarium control. Fibers were typed by myofibrillar ATPase histochemistry and immunostaining for embryonic, slow, fast IIA and fast IIB isomyosins. The percentage of multiple innervation and the complexity of singly-innervated motor terminal endings were assessed in silver/cholinesterase stained sections. Unique to the soleus, unloading accelerated production of fast IIA myosin, delayed expression of slow myosin and retarded increases in standardized muscle weight and fiber size. Loss of multiple innervation was not delayed. However, fewer than normal motor nerve endings achieved complexity. Suspended rats continued unloaded hindlimb movements. These findings suggest that motor neurons resolve multiple innervation through nerve impulse activity, whereas the postsynaptic element (muscle fiber) controls endplate size, which regulates motor terminal arborization. Unexpectedly, in the EDL of unloaded rats, transition from embryonic to fast myosin expression was retarded. Suspension-related foot drop, which stretches and chronically loads EDL, may have prevented fast fiber differentiation. These results demonstrate that neuromuscular development of both weightbearing and non-weightbearing muscles in rats is dependent upon and modulated by hindlimb loading.

Non-NASA Center↗

NASA NTRS1999

Cross-linking staphylococcal enterotoxin A bound to major histocompatibility complex class I is required for TNF-alpha secretion

The mechanism of how superantigens function to activate cells has been linked to their ability to bind and cross-link the major histocompatibility complex class II (MHCII) molecule. Cells that lack the MHCII molecule also respond to superantigens, however, with much less efficiency. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to confirm that staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA) could bind the MHCI molecule and to test the hypothesis that cross-linking SEA bound to MHCII-deficient macrophages would induce a more robust cytokine response than without cross-linking. We used a capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and an immunprecipitation assay to directly demonstrate that MHCI molecules bind SEA. Directly cross-linking MHCI using monoclonal antibodies or cross-linking bound SEA with an anti-SEA antibody or biotinylated SEA with avidin increased TNF-alpha and IL-6 secretion by MHCII(-/-) macrophages. The induction of a vigorous macrophage cytokine response by SEA/anti-SEA cross-linking of MHCI offers a mechanism to explain how MHCI could play an important role in superantigen-mediated pathogenesis. Copyright 1999 Academic Press.

NASA Discipline Musculoskeletal↗

NASA NTRS2010

Rapid Turn Around BRIC-PDFU Payload: A New Paradigm for Spaceflight Experiments

In 2009, NASA's Fundamental Space Biology program provided an opportunity for investigators to propose for a quick-turn-around multi-user spaceflight experiment that focused on the model plant species Arabidopsis thaliana. This was a passive payload with no on-orbit power or communications available. An NRA was rapidly written (8/09), released (NNH09ZTT004N; 9/09), proposals were received (11/09) and peer reviewed with 3 PI groups selected for flight (1/10): (1) A-L Paul, University of Florida, (2) E. Blancaflor, Noble Foundation, (3) J. Kiss, Miami University. The investigators flew Arabidopsis seeds or callus cultures of their choosing (plated onto 60 mm diameter Petri dishes containing agarsolidified media) on the STS-131 Space Shuttle mission (launched 4/5/10) and the resulting plant tissues returned to earth on 4/20/10. Each petri dish was placed inside its own Petri Dish Fixation Unit (PDFU), which was assembled and loaded with either formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde or RNAlater for crew-facilitated on-orbit fixation. Five PDFUs plus a temperature data logger were loaded into each of 8 BRIC-PDFUs (Biological Research In Canisters PDFU). All eight BRIC-PDFUs were loaded into a half tray along with actuator equipment that the crew used for the fixations. Pre-flight turn-over was 28 hours prior to launch. The BRIC-PDFU assemblies were removed from the orbiter and handed over to the investigator teams for processing 5-6 hours after landing. This payload demonstrated a rapid response turnaround for flying multiple peer-reviewed science investigations using previously flown hardware and minimal ISS-resources. The approach used reduced both hardware/certification and PI costs. The time waiting for a flight opportunity for the selected Pls was minimal. This new paradigm for spaceflight experiments may provide a model for future flight research opportunities. The ultimate goal is to fly as many investigators as rapidly as possible and reinvigorate the space biology community while obtaining high-quality, peer-reviewed science.

Levine, Howard G.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

The Beyond Low Earth Orbit (BLEO) Instrumentation and Science Series

The Beyond Low Earth Orbit Instrumentation and Science Series is an initiative in the NASA Space Biology Program to support fundamental biological research as we move beyond the ISS to explore the Moon and Mars. Centered at NASA's Ames Research Center, its activities include a Science Working Group; resources for the community such conferences and open science resources; hardware conceptualization and development; and two flight missions. This talk will present an overview of the specific components of the Series and ways in which the community can contribute.

Jessica Audrey Lee↗

NASA NTRS2000

Fundamental Biological Research on the International Space Station

The fundamental Biology Program of NASA's Life Sciences Division is chartered with enabling and sponsoring research on the International Space Station (ISS) in order to understand the effects of the space flight environment, particularly microgravity, on living systems. To accomplish this goal, NASA Ames Research Center (ARC) has been tasked with managing the development of a number of biological habitats, along with their support systems infrastructure. This integrated suite of habitats and support systems is being designed to support research requirements identified by the scientific community. As such, it will support investigations using cells and tissues, avian eggs, insects, plants, aquatic organisms and rodents. Studies following organisms through complete life cycles and over multiple generations will eventually be possible. As an adjunct to the development of these basic habitats, specific analytical and monitoring technologies are being targeted for maturation to complete the research cycle by transferring existing or emerging analytical techniques, sensors, and processes from the laboratory bench to the ISS research platform.

Souza, K. A.↗

NASA NTRS2016

GeneLab for High Schools: Data Mining for the Next Generation

Modern biological sciences have become increasingly based on molecular biology and high-throughput molecular techniques, such as genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics. NASA Scientists and the NASA Space Biology Program have aimed to examine the fundamental building blocks of life (RNA, DNA and protein) in order to understand the response of living organisms to space and aid in fundamental research discoveries on Earth. In an effort to enable NASA funded science to be available to everyone, NASA has collected the data from omics studies and curated them in a data system called GeneLab. Whilst most college-level interns, academics and other scientists have had some interaction with omics data sets and analysis tools, high school students often have not. Therefore, the Space Biology Program is implementing a new Summer Program for high-school students that aims to inspire the next generation of scientists to learn about and get involved in space research using GeneLabs Data System. The program consists of three main components core learning modules, focused on developing students knowledge on the Space Biology Program and Space Biology research, Genelab and the data system, and previous research conducted on model organisms in space; networking and team work, enabling students to interact with guest lecturers from local universities and their fellow peers, and also enabling them to visit local universities and genomics centers around the Bay area; and finally an independent learning project, whereby students will be required to form small groups, analyze a dataset on the Genelab platform, generate a hypothesis and develop a research plan to test their hypothesis. This program will not only help inspire high-school students to become involved in space-based research but will also help them develop key critical thinking and bioinformatics skills required for most college degrees and furthermore, will enable them to establish networks with their peers and connections with university Professors that may help them achieve their educational goals.

genelab↗

NASA NTRS2015

Translational Cell & Animal Research in Space 1965-2011

Translational Cell and Animal Research (TCAR). For nearly 50 years, the NASA Space Biology Program has funded, and Ames Research Center (ARC) has managed, a robust program of fundamental research including studies using a wide range of animal cells, tissues and organisms. Much of this research was conducted on spacecraft in microgravity environments including diverse platforms such as: Gemini Spacecraft, US Biosatellites, Apollo Command Modules, Skylabs, Russian Biosatellites, NASA Space Shuttles, NASA/Mir, and most recently, the International Space Station (ISS). During the Space Shuttle Era (1981–2011), the science of space biology took an enormous step forward with 45 missions that afforded researchers with new opportunities to conduct systematic and complex experiments aimed at a deeper understanding of how life adapts to the space environment. Beginning in the 1990s, the products of these experiments, comprised of research summaries and rare, unused biospecimens, were collected and catalogued within the ARC Life Sciences Data Archiving Office, a branch of NASA’s Life Sciences Data Archive (LSDA) managed from the NASA Johnson Spaceflight Center.

Ronca, April E.↗

NASA NTRS2003

Biological Visualization, Imaging and Simulation(Bio-VIS) at NASA Ames Research Center: Developing New Software and Technology for Astronaut Training and Biology Research in Space

The Bio- Visualization, Imaging and Simulation (BioVIS) Technology Center at NASA's Ames Research Center is dedicated to developing and applying advanced visualization, computation and simulation technologies to support NASA Space Life Sciences research and the objectives of the Fundamental Biology Program. Research ranges from high resolution 3D cell imaging and structure analysis, virtual environment simulation of fine sensory-motor tasks, computational neuroscience and biophysics to biomedical/clinical applications. Computer simulation research focuses on the development of advanced computational tools for astronaut training and education. Virtual Reality (VR) and Virtual Environment (VE) simulation systems have become important training tools in many fields from flight simulation to, more recently, surgical simulation. The type and quality of training provided by these computer-based tools ranges widely, but the value of real-time VE computer simulation as a method of preparing individuals for real-world tasks is well established. Astronauts routinely use VE systems for various training tasks, including Space Shuttle landings, robot arm manipulations and extravehicular activities (space walks). Currently, there are no VE systems to train astronauts for basic and applied research experiments which are an important part of many missions. The Virtual Glovebox (VGX) is a prototype VE system for real-time physically-based simulation of the Life Sciences Glovebox where astronauts will perform many complex tasks supporting research experiments aboard the International Space Station. The VGX consists of a physical display system utilizing duel LCD projectors and circular polarization to produce a desktop-sized 3D virtual workspace. Physically-based modeling tools (Arachi Inc.) provide real-time collision detection, rigid body dynamics, physical properties and force-based controls for objects. The human-computer interface consists of two magnetic tracking devices (Ascention Inc.) attached to instrumented gloves (Immersion Inc.) which co-locate the user's hands with hand/forearm representations in the virtual workspace. Force-feedback is possible in a work volume defined by a Phantom Desktop device (SensAble inc.). Graphics are written in OpenGL. The system runs on a 2.2 GHz Pentium 4 PC. The prototype VGX provides astronauts and support personnel with a real-time physically-based VE system to simulate basic research tasks both on Earth and in the microgravity of Space. The immersive virtual environment of the VGX also makes it a useful tool for virtual engineering applications including CAD development, procedure design and simulation of human-system systems in a desktop-sized work volume.

Smith, Jeffrey↗

NASA NTRS1992

Opportunities for research on Space Station Freedom

NASA has allocated research accommodations on Freedom (equipment, utilities, etc.) to the program offices that sponsor space-based research and development as follows: Space Science and Applications (OSSA)--52 percent, Commercial Programs (OCP)--28 percent, Aeronautics and Space Technology (OAST)--12 percent, and Space Flight (OSF)--8 percent. Most of OSSA's allocation will be used for microgravity and life science experiments; although OSSA's space physics, astrophysics, earth science and applications, and solar system exploration divisions also will use some of this allocation. Other Federal agencies have expressed an interest in using Space Station Freedom. They include the National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Geological Survey, National Science Foundation, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and U.S. Departments of Agriculture and Energy. Payload interfaces with space station lab support equipment must be simple, and experiment packages must be highly contained. Freedom's research facilities will feature International Standard Payload Racks (ISPR's), experiment racks that are about twice the size of a Spacelab rack. ESA's Columbus lab will feature 20 racks, the U.S. lab will have 12 racks, and the Japanese lab will have 10. Thus, Freedom will have a total of 42 racks versus 8 for Space lab. NASA is considering outfitting some rack space to accommodate small, self-contained payloads similar to the Get-Away-Special canisters and middeck-locker experiment packages flown on Space Shuttle missions. Crew time allotted to experiments on Freedom at permanently occupied capability will average 25 minutes per rack per day, compared to six hours per rack per day on Spacelab missions. Hence, telescience--the remote operation of space-based experiments by researchers on the ground--will play a very important role in space station research. Plans for supporting life sciences research on Freedom focus on the two basic goals of NASA 's space life sciences program: to ensure the health, safety, and productivity of humans in space and to acquire fundamental knowledge of biological processes. Space-based research has already shown that people and plants respond the same way to the microgravity environment: they lose structure. However, the mechanisms by which they respond are different, and researchers do not yet know much about these mechanisms. Life science research accommodations on Freedom will include facilities for experiments designed to address this and other questions, in fields such as gravitational biology, space physiology, and biomedical monitoring and countermeasures research.

Phillips, Robert W.↗