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NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Viability of Small Dimension Crew Quarters for Surface Habitation

During early planning for the Artemis program’s sustained phase of lunar activity, NASA planners have been held to work towards a NASA reference lunar lander concept. With this activity taking place prior to the awarding of a lander contract, NASA planners cannot assume which of several potential landers will be available. This has limited habitation team engineers to a 12-metric ton mass limit for the reference concept of the lunar Surface Habitat. Consequently, minimal approaches have been applied to many habitat systems and it is important to determine acceptable volume for crew quarters. A number of both NASA and non-NASA surface habitat concepts have proposed relatively small crew quarters due to this constraint. Consequently, there is a need to collect objective test data to confirm or refute the validity of small crew quarters. NASA-STD-3001 is looked to for guidance in its many standards but offers little to no help. While prior versions called for private habitation, the current version – Revision B – calls for “individual privacy” to “accommodate social retreat.” Proposed Revision C modifications change the language slightly to “accommodate sleep and social retreat.” This is not enough guidance to determine the size of a crew quarters or even its capabilities. Unfortunately, only a small number of US spacecraft have included crew quarters, primarily the International Space Station and the Skylab Space Station. The space shuttle orbiter sometimes flew a set of private bunks that some might consider a crew quarters. All of these are dramatically smaller than US standards for minimum jail cells. The first opportunity for NASA to test a small crew quarters in a surface habitat application has been created through the Exploration Atmospheres test series, which is evaluating human performance under reduced cabin pressures. The test is converting the 20-Foot Vacuum Chamber at Johnson Space Center into a habitat, with the lower level outfitted as an EVA test area and the upper two levels for human habitation. The test will place eight people (six test subjects and two technicians) inside the chamber for eleven days. All eight will sleep in private quarters during the test. Volume limitations in the chamber forced extremely small crew quarters, measuring approximately 2 meters in length, 0.85 meters in height, and 0.9 meters in width. The test cabin pressure of 8.2 psi and elevated oxygen also introduces significant material limitations, limiting outfitting options. Nonetheless, the crew quarters design requirements were to accommodate visual separation, auditory separation, olfactory separation, tactile separation, air flow control, lighting control, single person personal computing, physical work surface access, sleep accommodations, non-sleep rest/relaxation, meditation, stretching, two-person meetings, snacking, changing clothes, viewing appearance, video communication, and audio communication. This paper will detail the acceptability of the crew quarters as measured in the October 2021 Exploration Atmosphere test. Based on this data, the viability of the type of crew quarters used in the 20 Foot Chamber will be assessed. Design recommendations for a 30-60-day Surface Habitat crew quarters will be provided, along with recommendations for future testing.

Crew Quarters↗
NASA NTRS2020

A Classification of Ice Crystal Habits Using Combined Lidar and Scanning Polarimeter Observations during the SEAC4RS Campaign

Using collocated NASA Cloud Physics Lidar (CPL) and Research Scanning Polarimeter (RSP) data from the Studies of Emissions and Atmospheric Composition, Clouds and Climate Coupling by Regional Surveys (SEAC4RS) campaign, a new observational-based method was developed which uses a K-means clustering technique to classify ice crystal habit types into seven categories: column, plates, rosettes, spheroids, and three different type of irregulars. Intercompared with the collocated SPEC, Inc., Cloud Particle Imager (CPI) data, the frequency of the detected ice crystal habits from the proposed method presented in the study agrees within 5% with the CPI-reported values for columns, irregulars, rosettes, and spheroids, with more disagreement for plates. This study suggests that a detailed ice crystal habit retrieval could be applied to combined space-based lidar and polarimeter observations such as CALIPSO and POLDER in addition to future missions such as the Aerosols, Clouds, Convection, and Precipitation (A-CCP).

Natalie Midzak↗
NASA NTRS2022

Concepts for the Future Exploration of Dwarf Planet Ceres’ Habitability

Dwarf planet Ceres is a compelling target for future exploration because it hosts at least regional brine reservoirs and potentially ongoing geological activity. As the most water-rich body in the inner solar system, it is a representative of a population of planetesimals that were likely a significant source of volatiles and organics to the inner solar system. Here we describe possible medium-class (around $1 billion) mission concepts that would determine both Ceres' origin and its current habitability potential. Habitability is addressed through a combination of geological, geophysical, and compositional investigations by (i) searching for evidence from orbit of past and ongoing geological activity near landforms interpreted as brine-driven volcanic structures and (ii) probing the brine distribution below one of these regions with electromagnetic sounding (in situ). Two approaches were considered for compositional measurements, which address both habitability and origins: (1) in situ exploration at two sites and (2) sample return from a single site. Both concepts targeted material at Occator crater, which is one of the youngest features on Ceres (∼20 Ma) and a site rich in evaporites evolved from recently erupted brine sourced from a region >35 km deep. We conclude that a sample return architecture from these young evaporite deposits offers greater science return by enabling high-resolution analysis of organic matter (trapped in salt minerals) and isotopes of refractory elements for a similar cost and less science risk than in situ analyses. This manuscript describes the six science objectives and the two implementation concepts considered to achieve those objectives.

Julie Castillo-Rogez↗
NASA NTRS2022

Concepts for the Future Exploration of Dwarf Planet Ceres' Habitability

Dwarf planet Ceres is a compelling target for future exploration because it hosts at least regional brine reservoirs and potentially ongoing geological activity. As the most water-rich body in the inner solar system, it is a representative of a population of planetesimals that were likely a significant source of volatiles and organics to the inner solar system. Here we describe possible medium-class (around $1 billion) mission concepts that would determine both Ceres’ origin and its current habitability potential. Habitability is addressed through a combination of geological, geophysical, and compositional investigations by (i) searching for evidence from orbit of past and ongoing geological activity near landforms interpreted as brine-driven volcanic structures and (ii) probing the brine distribution below one of these regions with electromagnetic sounding (in situ). Two approaches were considered for compositional measurements, which address both habitability and origins: (1) in situ exploration at two sites and (2) sample return from a single site. Both concepts targeted material at Occator crater, which is one of the youngest features on Ceres (∼20 Ma) and a site rich in evaporites evolved from recently erupted brine sourced from a region >35 km deep. We conclude that a sample return architecture from these young evaporite deposits offers greater science return by enabling high-resolution analysis of organic matter (trapped in salt minerals) and isotopes of refractory elements for a similar cost and less science risk than in situ analyses. This manuscript describes the six science objectives and the two implementation concepts considered to achieve those objectives.

Julie Castillo-Rogez↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

NASA's Habitat Outfitting Portfolio: Technology Development to Support Future Habitation Systems

Habitat outfitting generally refers to the supplies and equipment (and installation thereof) which provide crew with a livable, safe environment during a mission and enable the performance of mission tasks. Outfitting will be needed on future missions for habitation to provide the crew with a livable and safe environment. Both softgoods inflatable habitats, which are packaged and deployed/inflated at the point of use, and constructed habitats, which may be manufactured using in situ resource-derived materials on a planetary surface, will require more outfitting than traditional habitation approaches using rigid metallic structures (such as the International Space Station), where many elements can launch pre-integrated. For softgoods inflatable habitats, it is anticipated that much of the outfitting would be performed by crew, while in constructed habitation scenarios outfitting may be done by robotic systems as part of precursor missions. This paper provides an overview of future planned habitats and outfitting needs, technology gaps related to outfitting, and current work under NASA’s habitat systems development, in-space manufacturing, and habitat construction portfolios related to this topic.

space habitats↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Surface Transportation of the Common Habitat from Lander to Habitation Zone

The Common Habitat Architecture is a feasibility study surrounding the use of an SLS core stage liquid oxygen tank as the pressure vessel for a long-duration habitat intended for use in multiple gravity environments. The Common Habitat is used within this study as the primary habitation element in both Moon and Mars surface base camps. The Common Habitat Architecture offloads the Common Habitat from its lander and transports it to a Habitation Zone instead of leaving the habitat integrated with the lander. In this study, the Landing Zone is assumed to be approximately 3.5 kilometers from the Habitation Zone. Given the physical size and estimated 90-ton mass of the Common Habitat, a four-week trade study encompassing Moon and Mars lander identification, offloading, surface transport, and emplacement was conducted in February 2021 to assess whether there are any credible options for landing the Common Habitat on the Moon or Mars and deliver it to its intended point of use. Constrained to use only public data, the study applied subject matter expert opinion to each component of the study. The surface transportation component of the trade study assumes the habitat has been successfully offloaded from its lander and is at a point of handover to the surface transportation system. It is assumed that there are no crew present, and all human operations are performed remotely by Mission Control personnel. Three core cargo handling elements from prior NASA studies were used as the basis from which to derive surface transportation options – the Chariot, the All-Terrain Hex-Limbed Extra-Terrestrial Explorer, and the Lightweight Surface Manipulator System. Variations and hybrid combinations of these elements were used to develop transportation options for the Moon and Mars, given different habitat masses. Ultimately, several potentially feasible solutions were identified, and a solution was recommended that is common to both the Moon and Mars, with the potential to use a dissimilar system as a backup during lunar Common Habitat delivery. Next steps for sizing and additional development and analysis of the recommended surface transportation system are included as forward work.

Surface Mobility↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Terrestrial Aqueously Altered Magmatic Dike Forming Sulfate-Rich Hydrothermal Fluids to Constrain Martian Habitability

Intrusion of magma into a water-bearing crust can create a habitable hydrothermal environment, as seen on Earth. As the rock surrounding the intrusion is subjected to heat it can 1) release water, and different chemical species, from pre-existing minerals, and 2) interact with volatiles released from the cooling magma, which can create a geothermal brine with a distinct composition suitable for a range of chemotrophs. Hence, studying such environments on Earth is important in the search for life beyond our planet. The geothermal brine’s nature is dependent on the host rock and the magmatic properties. On Mars basaltic and sulfur-rich soils are dominant and therefore investigating basaltic magmatic interaction with sulfate-rich sediments and their associated habitats is key for recognizing potential habitats on Mars. The NASA Perseverance Rover at Jezero Crater has detected aqueously altered igneous rocks, potentially intrusive in origin, with secondary carbonates, sodium perchlorate and sulfates. Such an environment may have been habitable. Therefore, we investigate the intrusion of a magmatic dike into Jurassic sulfate-rich sediments from the San Rafael Swell, Utah, to reconstruct the geothermal fluids and assess their putative habitability.

B Baharier↗
NASA NTRS2016

The Habitability of Proxima Centauri b: I. Irradiation, Rotation and Volatile Inventory From Formation to the Present

Proxima b is a planet with a minimum mass of 1.3 M(sub ⨁) orbiting within the habitable zone (HZ) of Proxima Centauri, a very low-mass, active star and the Sun’s closest neighbor. Here we investigate a number of factors related to the potential habitability of Proxima b and its ability to maintain liquid water on its surface. We set the stage by estimating the current high-energy irradiance of the planet and show that the planet currently receives 30 times more extreme-UV radiation than Earth and 250 times more X-rays. We compute the time evolution of the star’s spectrum, which is essential for modeling the flux received over Proxima b’s lifetime. We also show that Proxima b’s obliquity is likely null, and its spin is either synchronous or in a 3:2 spin-orbit resonance, depending on the planet’s eccentricity and level of triaxiality. Next, we consider the evolution of Proxima b’s water inventory. We use our spectral energy distribution to compute the hydrogen loss from the planet with an improved energy-limited escape formalism. Despite the high level of stellar activity, we find that Proxima b is likely to have lost less than an Earth ocean’s worth of hydrogen (EO(sub H)) before it reached the HZ 100–200 Myr after its formation. The largest uncertainty in our work is the initial water budget, which is not constrained by planet formation models. We conclude that Proxima b is a viable candidate habitable planet.

Proxima Cen↗
NASA NTRS2016

The Habitability of Proxima Centauri b II. Possible Climates and Observability

Radial velocity monitoring has found the signature of a M sin i = 1.3 M(sub ⨁) planet located within the habitable zone (HZ) of Proxima Centauri. Despite a hotter past and an active host star, the planet Proxima b could have retained enough volatiles to sustain surface habitability. Here we use a 3D Global Climate Model (GCM) to simulate the atmosphere and water cycle of Proxima b for its two likely rotation modes (1:1 and 3:2 spin-orbit resonances), while varying the unconstrained surface water inventory and atmospheric greenhouse effect. Any low-obliquity, low-eccentricity planet within the HZ of its star should be in one of the climate regimes discussed here. We find that a broad range of atmospheric compositions allow surface liquid water. On a tidally locked planet with sufficient surface water inventory, liquid water is always present, at least in the substellar region. With a non-synchronous rotation, this requires a minimum greenhouse warming (~10 mbar of CO2 and 1 bar of N2). If the planet is dryer, ~0.5 bar or 1.5 bars of CO2 (for asynchronous or synchronous rotation, respectively) suffice to prevent the trapping of any arbitrary, small water inventory into polar or nightside ice caps. We produce reflection and emission spectra and phase curves for the simulated climates. We find that atmospheric characterization will be possible via direct imaging with forthcoming large telescopes. The angular separation of 7 λ/D at 1 μm (with the E-ELT) and a contrast of ~10(exp -7) will enable high-resolution spectroscopy and the search for molecular signatures, including H2O, O2, and CO2. The observation of thermal phase curves can be attempted with the James Webb Space Telescope, thanks to a contrast of 2 × 10(exp -5) at 10 μm. Proxima b will also be an exceptional target for future IR interferometers. Within a decade it will be possible to image Proxima b and possibly determine whether the surface of this exoplanet is habitable.

Proxima Cen↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Habitability Potential of Martian Hydrothermal Systems Constrained from Exploration of a Magma-Sediment Hydrothermal System in the Colorado Plateau

Mars has a crust predominately composed of basalt, which displays wide-spread processes including volcanic hydrothermal systems and reference within. There is an abundance of evidence of previous low temperature hydrous alteration; however, finding evidence of high-temperature hydrothermal activity has been challenging. Therefore, we are investigating a mafic dike and the surrounding metamorphic contact zone to constrain how to find such systems on Mars and their habitability potential on Earth and by extension Mars. DC Dike (DCD) is in the Colorado Plateau, in south-central Utah, and intruded the Entrada formation Sandstone between 3.8 and 4.6 Ma. We chose Mars analog instrumentation to make our results directly applicable to those on Mars: Visible-Near Infrared reflectance spectroscopy (VNIR), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). 21 samples were analyzed with an Ore Express VNIR with wavelengths from 350-2500 nm. Bulk mineralogy is determined by using a Panalytical XRD including for clay fraction and soil separation analysis. Finally, samples are prepped as thin sections and will be analyzed using a SEM. All these techniques will be used to constrain: the mineralogy of the system, how the hydrothermal system cooled, the habitability of the cooling system, and how DCD relates to similar dikes in the area and on Mars. All of these results will then be compared to similar systems Mars, and if they too could have been habitable environments.

R. A. Slank↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Servicing the Habitable Worlds Observatory

The Habitable Worlds Observatory is a large ultraviolet/optical/infrared space telescope being planned for launch in the 2040s. The project was recommended in the National Academies Decadal Survey for Astronomy and Astrophysics Pathways to Discovery in Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 2020s. The Habitable Worlds Observatory will be the first space telescope designed specifically to search for signs of life on planets orbiting other stars. This "super-Hubble" will provide powerful capabilities for transformational astrophysics, from our cosmic backyard of the solar system, to the distant universe, and everything in between. The project will leverage past NASA flagship investments from the Hubble Space Telescope, the James Webb Space Telescope, and the Roman Space Telescope. Critical to the success of the project is to draw on decades of lessons from the development of these previous telescopes and other NASA missions to streamline the development of the Habitable Worlds Observatory in order to decrease budget and schedule risks.

HWO↗
NASA NTRS2016

Bringing Exoplanet Habitability Investigations to High School

Habitability, a.k.a. habitat suitability, is a topic typically discussed in Biology class. We present here a curriculum unit that introduces the topic of global-scale planetary habitability in a Physics classroom, allowing students to emulate the process of doing cutting-edge science and re-framing an otherwise "typical" physics unit in a more engaging and interactive way.

termperature↗
NASA NTRS2022

The TRAPPIST-1 Habitable Atmosphere Intercomparison (THAI). Part II: Moist Cases - The Two Waterworlds

To identify promising exoplanets for atmospheric characterization and to make the best use of observational data, a thorough understanding of their atmospheres is needed. 3D general circulation models (GCMs) are one of the most comprehensive tools available for this task and will be used to interpret observations of temperate rocky exoplanets. Due to parameterization choices made in GCMs, they can produce different results, even for the same planet. Employing four widely-used exoplanetary GCMs - ExoCAM, LMD-G, ROCKE-3D and the UM - we continue the TRAPPIST-1 Habitable Atmosphere Intercomparison by modeling aquaplanet climates of TRAPPIST-le with a moist atmosphere dominated by either nitrogen or carbon dioxide. Although the GCMs disagree on the details of the simulated regimes, they all predict a temperate climate with neither of the two cases pushed out of the habitable state. Nevertheless, the inter-model spread in the global mean surface temperature is non-negligible: 14 K and 24 K in the nitrogen and carbon dioxide dominated case, respectively. We find substantial inter-model differences in moist variables, with the smallest amount of clouds in LMDGeneric and the largest in ROCKE-3D. ExoCAM predicts the warmest climate for both cases and thus has the highest water vapor content and the largest amount and variability of cloud condensate. The UM tends to produce colder conditions, especially in the nitrogen-dominated case due to a strong negative cloud radiative effect on the day side of TRAPPIST-le. Our study highlights various biases of GCMs and emphasizes the importance of not relying solely on one model to understand exoplanet climates.

TRAPPIST↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Pairing a GCM and Bayesian Framework to Predict Habitable Zone Evolution

In the near-future, new space telescopes like JWST, LUVOIR, and HabEx will begin attempting to explore the properties of atmospheres of potentially habitable planets. This will require a significant amount of time and resources for even a single planet, which makes it essential to prioritize observations by those most-likely to have detectable life. Here we present a statistical method to estimate the probabilities that specific exoplanets have been continuously in the habitable zone of their host stars for more than 2 billion years, the approximate time it took life on Earth to significantly increase the oxygen content of the atmosphere. We introduce the use of statistics of an ensemble of 3D planetary general circulation models to estimate these probabilities, replacing prior 1D model estimates.

habitable planets↗
NASA NTRS2010

Potentially Habitable Ancient Environments in Gusev Crater, Mars

Habitable environments must sustain liquid water at least intermittently and also provide both chemical building blocks and useful sources of energy for life. Observations by Spirit rover indicate that conditions have probably been too dry to sustain life, at least since the emplacement of the extensive basalts that underlie the plains around the Columbia Memorial Station landing site. Local evidence of relatively minor aqueous alteration [1] probably occurred under conditions where the activity of water was too low to sustain biological processes as we know them. In contrast, multiple bedrock units in West Spur and Husband Hill in the Columbia Hills have been extensively altered. Patterns of elemental abundances are consistent with aqueous processes involving migrating fluids [2]. Fe in several of these units has been extensively oxidized [3]. Conceivably any microbiota present during the aqueous alteration of these rocks might have obtained energy from Fe oxidation. Spirit discovered olivine-rich ultramafic rocks during her descent from Husband Hill southward into Inner Basin. Alteration of similar ultramafic rocks on Earth can yield H2 that can provide both energy and reducing power for microorganisms. Spirit's discovery of deposits rich in ferric sulfate is consistent with the aqueous dissolution and/or alteration of olivine under acidic conditions [2] such as those associated with hydrothermal activity. The oxidation of iron and sulfur that can accompany such activity can be an energy source for life. Hydrothermal systems on Earth that sustain either acidic [4] or neutral to alkaline fluids [5] have been shown to provide this energy. Collectively the observations by Spirit rover are consistent with the possibility that habitable environments existed in Gusev crater at least intermittently in the distant geologic past.

Fe oxidation↗
NASA NTRS2015

Mapping the Region in the Nearest Star System to Search for Habitable Planets

Circumstellar planets within the alpha Centauri AB star system have been suggested through formation models and recent observations, and ACESat (Belikov et al. AAS Meeting #225, #311.01, 2015) is a proposed space mission designed to directly image Earth-sized planets in the habitable zones of both of these stars. The alpha Centauri system is billions of years old, so planets are only expected to be found in regions where their orbits are long-lived. We evaluate the extent of the regions within the alpha Centauri AB star system where small planets are able to orbit for billion-year timescales and we map the positions in the sky plane where planets on stable orbits about either stellar component may appear. We confirm the qualitative results of Wiegert & Holman (Astron. J. 113, 1445, 1997) regarding the approximate size of the regions of stable orbits, which are larger for retrograde orbits relative to the binary than for prograde orbits. Additionally, we find that mean motion resonances with the binary orbit leave an imprint on the limits of orbital stability, and the effects of the Lidov-Kozai mechanism are also readily apparent. Overall, orbits in the habitable zones near the plane of the binary are stable, whereas high-inclination orbits are short-lived.

alpha Centauri AB star system↗
NASA NTRS2015

Space Telescope Design to Directly Image the Habitable Zone of Alpha Centauri

The scientific interest in directly imaging and identifying Earth-like planets within the Habitable Zone (HZ) around nearby stars is driving the design of specialized direct imaging missions such as ACESAT, EXO-C, EXO-S and AFTA-C. The inner edge of Alpha Cen A&B Habitable Zone is found at exceptionally large angular separations of 0.7" and 0.4" respectively. This enables direct imaging of the system with a 0.3m class telescope. Contrast ratios on the order of 10(exp 10) are needed to image Earth-brightness planets. Low-resolution (5-band) spectra of all planets may allow establishing the presence and amount of an atmosphere. This star system configuration is optimal for a specialized small, and stable space telescope that can achieve high-contrast but has limited resolution. This paper describes an innovative instrument design and a mission concept based on a full Silicon Carbide off-axis telescope, which has a Phase Induced Amplitude Apodization coronagraph embedded in the telescope. This architecture maximizes stability and throughput. A Multi-Star Wave Front algorithm is implemented to drive a deformable mirror controlling simultaneously diffracted light from the on-axis and binary companion star. The instrument has a Focal Plane Occulter to reject starlight into a high precision pointing control camera. Finally we utilize a Orbital Differential Imaging (ODI) post-processing method that takes advantage of a highly stable environment (Earth-trailing orbit) and a continuous sequence of images spanning 2 years, to reduce the final noise floor in post processing to approximately 2e-11 levels, enabling high confidence and at least 90% completeness detections of Earth-like planets.

Low-resolution (5-band) spectra↗
NASA NTRS2020

The Atacama Desert: A Window into Late Mars Surface Habitability?

Decades of robotic exploration have revealed that Mars was capable of sustaining life in the Noachian and Hesperian periods (> 3 billion years ago). But habitability conditions progressively deteriorated thereafter, and a lasting trend of climate change has made the surface of the planet likely uninhabitable at present times. One of the outstanding enigmas in Mars exploration is when was the last time that the surface of the planet could have sustained life. In this chapter we address this question through comparisons with one of the oldest and driest deserts on Earth, the Atacama Desert in northern Chile. We base our analysis on a latitudinal rainfall gradient that allows to investigate how microbial communities respond to increasing dryness. We posit that the ecological successions observed along the Atacama rainfall gradient represent a possible model for the adaptation of an early martian biosphere to increasing dryness throughout the planet’s geologic history, offering clues to the last surface environments that could have sustained life, and the timing of the last surface habitable period. These might in turn be the best locations to search for evidence of life.

Atacama Desert↗