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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

Converter-Interfaced CHP Plant for Improved Grid-Integration, Flexibility and Resiliency

GE Research and its partner GE Renewables have proposed the use of an interface converter solution to increase the penetration of small to medium-sized CHP (1MWe to 20MWe) into distribution grids and improve their flexibility and grid support capability. Indeed, the proposed interface converter solution thanks to presence of the grid-ready inverter, allows to streamline the compliance to grid codes requirements, reduce the interconnection delays and costs and ultimately one of the main barriers for CHP adoption by commercial and industrial facilities. An additional benefit provided by the interface converter is the use of the grid-ready inverter for reactive power which eliminates the need of sizing the generator for that capability. These two benefits highly favor the economic feasibility of converter-interfaced CHP. Five user cases, each in one of the leading U.S states for CHP potential reported by the DOE in its estimation of the U.S Technical Potential of CHP, were selected to compare the economic performances of converter-interfaced CHP as compared with directly-coupled. They include a college campus in California, a hospital in New York, a water reclamation plant in Texas, a hotel in Minnesota, and a large office building in Pennsylvania. Results showed that, the presence of the interface converter allows to increase the return on investment (ROI) by 0.5 to 2 percentage points in most of the cases (4 of 5). Indeed, the interface converter by shortening the interconnection process allows to accelerate revenues while reducing interconnection costs. Added to the reduced cost of the required generator these savings trade favorably the capital cost of the converter. The analysis also showed that the profitability of the converter-interfaced CHP is highly sensitive to the energy price, interconnection delay, and converter cost. However, it appears that if the interface converter can shorten the interconnection process by at least 6 months, adopting this solution will be more economically viable than directly-coupled configuration in almost all the +23,000 sites of the U.S Technical Potential CHP. The evaluation of the benefits of a converter-interfaced CHP also showed that it enables higher ROI when coupled with other distributed energy resources (DER) such as battery energy systems (BESS) or solar photovoltaic (PV). Indeed, in those scenario, the grid-ready inverter included in the interface converter eliminates the need of separate inverters if DC-coupling is used. On the technical performance, it has been verified that the presence of the interface converter allows to reduce by 70% to 80% the CHP short-circuit contribution to grid faults. This not only reduces the mechanical and thermal stresses exposed to the CHP electrical components but also increases the grid hosting capacity which ultimately enables higher penetrations CHP. Another key benefit of the interface converter validated with hardware-in-the-loop simulations and testing is its superior capability for reactive power support. Indeed, using a power hardware testbed with two +700kW inverters configured in back-to-back, a microgrid controller and actual facilities loads it was demonstrated that the presence of the interface converter can help maintain a power factor near ~1 or regulate the voltage to ~1.0pu at the point of common coupling. This benefit can be highly valuable if in the future, due to higher penetration of renewable distributed energy resources (DER), utilities start billing demand charge based on kVA instead of kW as currently. It was also validated that converter-interfaced CHP can dispatch heat and power commands and seamlessly switch between the two modes while consistently controlling the power factor or voltage at PCC. Indeed, the power hardware testing showed that grid-connected converter-interfaced CHP can follow either the power or heat demand while maintaining a unity power factor at converter output. This research proved that the adoption of an interface converter as the solution for interconnection of CHP system into the distribution grid can greatly improve the economic feasibility of small to medium-sized CHP as well as the plant power quality, flexibility and resiliency. Additionally, it allows increased penetrations of CHP into the distribution grid, extends their grid support capability, and facilitates the integration of BESS and PV DER by streamlining their collocation within the same facilities. This ultimately provides an opportunity for commercial and small industrial facilities in the U.S to accelerate their energy transition thanks to the high energy efficiency of CHP systems and its reliable, flexible, and resilient microgrid operation when interconnected with an interface converter.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2021

Cybersecurity for Grid Connected eXtreme Fast Charging (XFC) Station (CyberX) (Final Scientific/Technical Report)

This report summarizes the activities conducted under the DOE VTO funded project DE- EE0008451, where ABB Inc. (ABB), in collaboration with Idaho National Laboratory (INL), APS Global (APS), and XOS Trucks (XOS) pursued the development of a cyber-resilient extreme fast charging (XFC) management system. This project entitled Cybersecurity for Grid Connected eXtreme Fast Charging (XFC) Station (CyberX) focuses on a resilient architecture for smart charging EV Supply Equipment (EVSE) device control and Coordinated Anomaly Detection System (CADS) features that can be added at the charging site depot level to increase cybersecurity. The project was split into two budget periods focused first on developing the threat model and resilient control concepts and second on testing, improving, and validating those developed resilient control algorithms and features with a focus on key vulnerabilities identified during the threat assessment portion of the project. During the first budget period of the CyberX project, the ABB led team focused on activities to identify, model, and quantitatively prioritize high-impact attack scenarios with potential cyber-physical effects while also modeling and developing concepts for a resilient control system that could securely address integration of DERs and other resources with EV charging. Development of the security focused XFC management system (XMS) was accomplished first by offline simulation using a developed XFC station or depot with 480V input level and simulating measurement inputs to monitoring and control systems in concept development. A representative distribution grid model was developed supporting an EV charging site model with BESS and 6 general EV charging models. These EV charging models allowed multiple configurations of charging level, multiple connected protection and measurement devices, and simulation function to show general compromise of EV, BESS, and protection features based on parallel threat analysis. During the second budget period, the EV site and supporting systems model was developed in more detail and converted from offline model to real-time to real-time with EV charging hardware in the loop (HIL). The resilient control architecture developed as concept in the first part of the project was further tested and validated for integration of local energy resources and XFC charging station site equipment while maintaining cybersecure operating principles. The proposed resilient architecture for smart charging and cybersecurity features consists of two main concepts developed and tested within the project. The first concept is an XFC management system (XMS) consisting of a hardware gateway, software platform, and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) or Distribution Management System integration components. The second concept is a Coordinated Anomaly Detection System (CADS) which forms a primarily software-related subsystem of the total CyberX solution focused on monitoring system measurements, estimation of measurement states, and predicting current at the utility point of interaction based on machine learning for anomaly detection.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Photovoltaic Plant and Battery Energy Storage System Integration at NREL's Flatirons Campus

Although utility-scale solar photovoltaic (PV) power plants are becoming a cost-effective energy resource, there is belief within the energy industry that the increasing penetrations of PV technologies could potentially impact grid reliability. This is due to the variability across timescales, the forecast uncertainty of the solar energy resource, and the impacts on both distribution and transmission systems. This can cause utilities to severely limit PV installations or to assign PV integration costs when considering a least-cost portfolio of resources. As California and other regions in the United States are marching toward fulfilling - and probably exceeding - their renewables portfolio standards goals, grid operators are beginning to face operational challenges that could have implications for existing renewable and nonrenewable generators and that will shape opportunities for future projects. In this work, we focused on developing controls and conducting demonstrations for AC-coupled PV-battery energy storage systems (BESS) in which PV and BESS are collocated and share a point of common coupling (PCC).

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Bad River Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians Solar Project

The Bad River Band of Lake Superior Chippewa (the Tribe) implemented its first phase of energy independence through the installation of approximately 520 kW DC of solar photovoltaic (PV) at three tribal buildings: 200kW DC at the Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP), 300 kW DC at the Health & Wellness Center (Health Clinic), and 20 kW AC at the Chief Blackbird Administration Building (Administration Building). The solar PV systems were integrated with the existing utility grid and can operate independent of the grid using Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) in combination with solar and existing back-up gas generators. The BESS also creates resiliency, providing power when the grid is down. All three buildings are essential Tribal buildings.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Energy Northwest – Horn Rapids Solar and Storage: A Techno-economic Assessment

In 2017, as part of the second round of funding from the Washington State Clean Energy Fund, the Washington State Department of Commerce granted up to $\$3$ million in matching funds to develop an estimated $6.5 million project that deployed a 4-MW, 20-acre solar generating array of photovoltaic (PV) panels coupled with a 1 MW/4 MWh (nameplate capacity) lithium-iron-phosphate battery energy storage system (BESS) in Richland, Washington. The combination of PV and BESS will provide a predictable, renewable generating source and will also serve as a training ground for solar and battery technicians throughout the nation. This report documents the techno-economic assessment of the integrated system, including the definition of use cases and applications, collection and preparation of data and input parameters, development of modeling and optimization methods, case studies, and analysis results.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Long-Duration Energy Storage: Resiliency for Military Installations

This report provides a quantitative techno-economic analysis of a long-duration energy storage (LDES) technology, when coupled to on-base solar photovoltaics (PV), to meet the U.S. Department of Defense's (DoD's) 14-day requirement to sustain critical electric loads during a power outage and significantly reduce an installation's carbon footprint. The LDES modeled is Antora Energy's battery energy storage system (BESS). It is currently at a technology readiness level (TRL) of 7 and not ready for full-scale deployment. To support decisions on the value of near-term demonstrations, this analysis looked at the potential value of Antora Energy's BESS if deployed in the future.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2024

Rosario Strait Tidal Energy plus Energy Storage — Preliminary Economic Assessment

The Orcas Power and Light Co-op (OPALCO) is a non-profit utility that provides energy services to approximately 11,700 customers across 20 islands in San Juan County, Washington. OPALCO is developing a diverse set of local renewable energy resources to reduce dependence on mainland Washington State for energy and to reduce the regional need for fossil-fueled power. OPALCO’s load doubles in winter but solar production is roughly 20% of levels reached in summer periods. Tidal energy is strong year-round, night and day, and is predictable, requiring much less storage to firm it. To assess the technical and economic feasibility of tidal power, working in combination with multiple other distributed energy resources (DERs), Argonne National Laboratory (Argonne) employed an optimization model to evaluate several economic benefits associated with varying scales of tidal power of between 2.4 and 9.6 megawatts (MW) and other DERs. In addition to existing photovoltaic (PV) and battery energy storage system (BESS) resources located on Decatur Island, Argonne also evaluated the addition of a BESS on southern Orcas Island with power and energy capacities ranging from 1-4 MW and 2-4 hours in storage duration.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Power Supply Options for the Marpi Landfill, Saipan: Feasibility Study

The Marpi Landfill, located on the northern end of the island of Saipan in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), is powered by an on-site diesel generator that only operates when the landfill is open and staffed. The CNMI Office of Planning and Development (OPD) aspires to provide the Marpi Landfill with 24-hour power availability despite its remote location and to increase the use of sustainable energy within the CNMI. CNMI has a 20% target for renewable energy consumption, as documented in Sustainable Development Goal #7 in the Comprehensive Sustainable Development Plan (OPD 2021) and the renewable portfolio standard (GPO 2014). To accomplish these goals, the U.S. Department of Energy, through its Interagency Reimbursable Work Agreement with the Federal Emergency Management Agency, funded this feasibility study to assess and prioritize power supply options for the landfill. The availability of solar and wind resources varies seasonally, as does the load. A BESS can help to balance mismatches between generation and load on short (hourly or daily) timescales, but not across seasons. The microgrid scenarios evaluated for Marpi consider options for technology combinations that will both meet the load and utilize available resources, despite the challenge presented by higher loads and lower solar and wind availability during the rainy season, depicted in Figure ES-2. The seven scenarios evaluated are summarized in Table ES-1. Each scenario’s configuration was optimized to include component capacities that reduce capital and operating costs, meet the load, and minimize carbon emissions, as feasible. The costs and levelized cost of energy (LCOE) shown do not assume the use of any grant funding or incentives, although these options were also evaluated. To assist with decision-making, a prioritization matrix (Table ES-3) was created to compare the microgrid scenarios evaluated in this feasibility study according to various stakeholder priorities. The prioritization metrics were chosen based on discussions with OPD and will be finalized through stakeholder feedback. The scenarios were given a score between 1 and 7 for each prioritization metric (the lower the score, the higher the priority), and total scores were calculated using assigned weights based on the relative priority of each metric. The total scores were then ranked to produce a prioritized list of microgrid scenarios based on the metrics most important to the project stakeholders. As shown, scenario 4 (100 kW of solar PV, a 75 kW/300 kWh BESS, and 160 kW of diesel generation) ranks highest.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Evaluating Utility Costs Savings and Resilience: A Case Study in Port Arthur, Texas

This study evaluates the techno-economic feasibility of integrating solar photovoltaics (PV), battery energy storage systems (BESS), and generators to enhance both cost savings and resilience in critical community facilities in Port Arthur, Texas. Using NREL's REopt model, we analyze four facilities: the Golden Triangle Empowerment Center (GTEC), Lamar State College (LSC), Port Arthur Independent School District (PAISD), and Port Arthur Transit (PAT). A key aspect of the analysis is the incorporation of the Value of Lost Load (VoLL) and microgrid upgrade costs to assess the hidden value of resilience during grid outages. While standalone PV scenarios show moderate cost reductions and a 10-15% decrease in CO2 emissions, the inclusion of resilience measures with BESS and generators significantly increases system costs. However, the hidden value of resilience - quantified through avoided outage costs - leads to a substantial improvement in financial outcomes, resulting in positive Net Present Value (NPV) at many sites. The study demonstrates that resilient solar and storage systems offer both economic and resilience benefits, particularly for underserved communities, by balancing energy savings and enhanced operational continuity during outages.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Optimizing Distributed Energy Storage Sizing in Puerto Rico: Leveraging Increased Distributed Generation for Enhanced Resilience

Distributed solar photovoltaic (PV) and battery energy storage systems (BESS) adoption has increased rapidly in Puerto Rico since Hurricane Maria in 2017 as customers seek local resilient energy solutions. To investigate how to best leverage these many distributed PV and BESS systems, in this paper, we introduce a modeling framework that can be used by entities planning resilience investments to provide insights about the sizing and operational needs to achieve desired resilience benefits.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2026

Mitigating Data Center Impact on Grid Stability: A Coordinated Control Strategy Using Verrus StabiliGrid Architecture

Large data centers, which now represent a significant and growing share of the total U.S. grid load, can inadvertently destabilize the electrical grid when they disconnect simultaneously during brief voltage disturbances. The July 10, 2024, Eastern Interconnection incident, in which a sub-100-millisecond transmission fault triggered the cascading loss of approximately 1,500 MW of data center load, illustrates this vulnerability. While commercial battery energy storage systems (BESS) deployed in data centers provide device-level fault ride-through per IEEE 1547, they lack coordination with facility protection logic and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), limiting their effectiveness as grid-stabilizing assets. This report presents the Verrus StabiliGrid architecture, a coordinated control framework that integrates BESS, UPS, and point-of-interconnection (POI) protection settings to enable data centers to ride through both undervoltage and overvoltage grid contingencies without disconnecting. The four-step strategy encompasses: (1) high-resolution power quality monitoring to detect the grid state during events such as undervoltage, overvoltage, underfrequency, and overfrequency; (2) POI protection settings that allow for extended ride-through and grid-connected operation during grid contingencies; (3) grid state-driven autonomous dispatch of assets to improve grid resilience by reducing power draw during undervoltage or absorbing more power during overvoltage events; and (4) coordinated post-recovery dispatch of data center assets to restore firm load to pre-contingency levels. Validated through controller-hardware-in-the-loop (C-HIL) simulations at the National Laboratory of the Rockies, results show grid import restoration to pre-fault levels within 100 milliseconds of voltage recovery. This work advances the ability of data centers to transition from passive, disturbance-sensitive loads to active participants in grid stability, a capability increasingly required by emerging NERC and ERCOT regulatory frameworks.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2026

BIL GRID-READY WIND: Reliable and Economical Grid Services Design, Implementation, and Demonstration at the Great Pathfinder Wind Power Plant

The GRID-READY WIND project aimed to demonstrate the ability of utility-scale wind power plants (WPPs) to deliver traditional and emerging grid services (GSs) in both grid-following (GFL) and grid-forming (GFM) modes through a centralized control framework, supplemented by local control adjustments at the wind turbine generator as needed. Throughout the project, the team offered recommendations on how the grid services demonstrated with WPPs could be applied to other inverter-based resources (IBRs), such as photovoltaic (PV) systems and battery energy storage systems (BESS), while considering the unique dynamics of these resources arising from their energy generation characteristics. The project sought to enhance the confidence of system operators (SOs) and planners in utilizing WPPs, alongside other IBRs such as PV plants and BESS, to provide essential grid services over extended periods under diverse operating conditions, thereby supporting their integration into the bulk power system.

17 WIND ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2026

Microgrid Hardening Design Toolkit: Puerto Rico Use Case

This document provides a comprehensive example of the microgrid hardening framework and the Sandia developed Microgrid Hardening Design Toolkit v0.27 using a census tract in a coastal area of southern Puerto Rico as a case study. The census tract (72123953100) is located in the municipality of Salinas. Currently, the La Margarita neighborhood within this census tract is part of the Department of Energy’s Cohort 5 of the Energy Technology Innovation and Partnership Program (ETIPP). The neighborhood’s local energy cooperative, Abeyno Coop, has been operating several residential solar photovoltaic (PV) and battery energy storage system (BESS) installations (with around 30 rooftop solar systems as of 2026). As part of the ETIPP project, Abeyno Coop is planning to integrate a larger microgrid into the existing distribution feeder in the area, including solar PV and BESS to supply energy for homes and critical loads such as the medical facilities and the community center that provides emergency shelter and backup power during outages.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2026

Storing Affordability: Battery Storage as an Asset to Reduce Data Center Cost Shifts

This report examines how battery energy storage systems (BESS) can help utilities accommodate large load growth while protecting affordability for existing ratepayers. Rapid growth in electricity demand from artificial intelligence (AI) data centers is straining the U.S. grid. Furthermore, many new data centers are entering rural markets, which could offer economic benefits but may also pose implementation challenges for smaller utilities. At the same time, retail electricity prices are increasing faster than inflation, elevating customer affordability as a key challenge. While data centers have not been the primary driver of increases in residential prices to date, they have pushed wholesale energy and capacity prices higher in several markets. Fundamental utility cost-allocation principles show that data center growth can be rate-positive for existing customers only if new peak demand grows faster than the costs a utility must incur to serve it. Several factors, including a utility’s degree of wholesale market exposure, forecast uncertainty and stranded-asset risk, and tariff design can determine the outcome of load growth on retail rates. Energy storage can make several affordability contributions in the face of this landscape of uncertainty and market volatility, including deferral of higher-cost grid investments through improved utilization of existing assets and flexibility of new large loads, insulation from volatile wholesale prices through peak shaving, and reliability support to address grid risks stemming from the behavior of AI data center loads. Different potential BESS deployment pathways—utility-scale front-of-the-meter systems, aggregated small-scale storage installations, and data center-sited behind-the-meter storage—are compared against each other and against conventional capacity alternatives. This framework is intended as a conceptual resource to utilities, particularly smaller public utilities with rural service territories, who may be considering the role that energy storage can play in insulating existing ratepayers from data center cost shifts.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Energy Storage Impacts in Resilience Hubs and Other Critical Infrastructure: An Assessment Guide for Developers and Practitioners

Battery energy storage systems (BESS) deployed behind the meter at resilience hubs and other critical infrastructure can provide economic and operational value during normal operations—such as lower and more predictable energy costs—as well as resilience and security benefits during power disruptions by maintaining essential services. However, existing evaluation approaches tend to focus narrowly on engineering performance or rely on broad socio-economic frameworks that are not well suited to behind-the-meter storage. As a result, developers, utilities, and funders often lack consistent methods for defining success, quantifying benefits, and comparing outcomes across projects. This report presents a practitioner-oriented impact assessment framework for evaluating behind-the-meter BESS at resilience hubs and critical infrastructure facilities. The framework is organized into five iterative components—developing an action plan, defining project goals, identifying metrics, collecting data and measuring outcomes, and reporting and using results—and includes a structured metric architecture spanning six impact categories. Designed for real-world constraints such as limited staffing and uneven data availability, the framework was developed, applied, and refined through real projects, and is illustrated with case studies across diverse deployment contexts.

Impact Assessment↗
DOE OSTI2023

Optimal Power Management of Battery Energy Storage Systems via Ensemble Kalman Inversion

Optimal power management of battery energy storage systems (BESS) is crucial for their safe and efficient operation. Numerical optimization techniques are frequently utilized to solve the optimal power management problems. However, these techniques often fall short of delivering real-time solutions for large-scale BESS due to their computational complexity. To address this issue, this paper proposes a computationally efficient approach. We introduce a new set of decision variables called power-sharing ratios corresponding to each cell, indicating their allocated power share from the output power demand. We then formulate an optimal power management problem to minimize the system-wide power losses while ensuring compliance with safety, balancing, and power supply-demand match constraints. To efficiently solve this problem, a parametrized control policy is designed and leveraged to transform the optimal power management problem into a parameter estimation problem. We then implement the ensemble Kalman inversion to estimate the optimal parameter set. The proposed approach significantly reduces computational requirements due to 1) the much lower dimensionality of the decision parameters and 2) the estimation treatment of the optimal power management problem. Finally, we conduct extensive simulations to validate the effectiveness of the proposed approach. The results show promise in accuracy and computation time compared with explored numerical optimization techniques.

Farakhor, Amir↗
DOE OSTI2022

Using Energy Storage-Based Grid Forming Inverters for Operational Reserve in Hybrid Diesel Microgrids

In remote arctic communities, where access to a bulk electrical grid interconnection is not available, the implementation of islanded microgrids has been the most viable way to produce and distribute electricity services to their inhabitants. Historically, these islanded grids have relied primarily on diesel generators or hydropower resources to supply the baseload. However, this practice can result in increased expense due to the high costs associated with fuel transportation and the significant amounts of on-site storage necessary when fuel transportation is unavailable during winter months. In order to mitigate this problem, arctic microgrids have started to transition to a hybrid-source operational mode by incorporating renewable energy sources that are inherently variable in nature, such as wind or solar. Due to their highly stochastic behavior, these hybrid-source islanded microgrids can pose potential issues related to power quality due to introduction of rapid net load fluctuations and inability of diesel generators to respond rapidly. In addition, non-firm stochastic sources can require significant idling diesel generator resources to serve as spinning reserves, which is inefficient and wasteful. This work studies the problems that may arise in the transient dynamics of a real-world hybrid diesel microgrid when subjected to a loss of wind generation. Moreover, this work proposes a transition from a diesel spinning reserve to a battery energy-storage system (BESS) operating reserve scheme. The study of the proposed transition is important in establishing the fundamental implication of transient dynamics and the potential benefits of integrating a BESS as a spinning reserve in terms of stability, frequency nadir, and transient voltage deviation. The methods to investigate and validate the transient dynamics relied on both electromagnetic simulation models of GFMIs and a commercially available GFMI in an experimental power hardware-in-the-loop setup. The simulation results showed that the proposed operating reserve scheme improves the power quality of the system in terms of voltage deviation and frequency nadir when the microgrid is subjected to a loss of wind generation scenario. Depending on the simulation cases, adding a GFMI reduced the frequency nadir between 65.3% and 86.7%. Moreover, the reductions in the voltage deviations improved between 3.6% and 23.0%. From these results it can be concluded that the integration of a GFMI can reduce the frequency nadir in a hybrid diesel microgrid, and in turn, reduce diesel consumption, which improves system reliability while reducing fuel expenses. Furthermore, the novelty of this work relies on the fact that the offline simulation results were validated using a power hardware-in-the-loop platform that incorporated a 100 kVA commercially available GFMI as the device under test.

Hernandez-Alvidrez, Javier↗
DOE OSTI2024

Revenue Analysis of Stationary and Transportable Battery Storage for Power Systems: A Market Participant Perspective

The power system faces a growing need for increased transmission capacity and reliability with the rising integration of renewable energy resources. To tackle this challenge, Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESSs) prove effective in enhancing grid capacity and relieving transmission congestion. This paper focuses on the PJM market, conducting a thorough revenue analysis to identify and characterize highly profitable nodes for BESS market participants. A comparison between stationary and transportable BESSs reveals that the transportable BESSs can generate higher potential revenue in energy and regulation markets. Based on these findings, we propose an optimal placement algorithm to support market participants in selecting strategic sites for BESS installation, validated with real PJM market data. This paper provides valuable insights for navigating market-based power system participants and promoting the effective integration of BESSs.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗