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All sources NASA NTRS DOE OSTI

DOE OSTI2023

Algal Biomass Production via Open Pond Algae Farm Cultivation: 2022 State of Technology and Future Research

The annual State of Technology (SOT) assessment is an essential activity for platform research conducted under the Bioenergy Technologies Office (BETO). It allows for the impact of research progress (both directly achieved in-house at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory [NREL] and furnished by partner organizations) to be quantified in terms of economic improvements in the overall biofuel production process for a particular biomass processing pathway, whether based on terrestrial or algal biomass feedstocks. As such, initial benchmarks can be established for currently demonstrated performance, and progress can be tracked toward out-year goals to ultimately demonstrate economically viable biofuel technologies. NREL's algae SOT benchmarking efforts focus both on front-end algal biomass production and separately on back-end conversion to fuels through NREL's "combined algae processing" (CAP) pathway. The production model is based on outdoor long-term cultivation data, enabled by comprehensive algal biomass production trials conducted under the Development of Integrated Screening, Cultivar Optimization, and Verification Research (DISCOVR) consortium efforts, driven by data furnished by Arizona State University (ASU) at the Arizona Center for Algae Technology and Innovation (AzCATI) testbed site. The CAP model is based on experimental efforts conducted primarily under NREL research and development projects. This report focuses on front-end algal biomass production, documenting the pertinent algal biomass cultivation parameters that were input to the NREL open pond algae farm model. Through partnerships under DISCOVR, collaborators at ASU furnished details on cultivation performance metrics including biomass productivity and harvest densities for recent growth trials done at the AzCATI site. The resulting biomass productivity was calculated at 18.5 g/m2/day (ash-free dry weight [AFDW], annual average) for seasonal cultivation of Picochlorum celeri, Tetraselmis striata LANL1001, and Monoraphidium minutum 26B-AM biomass strains at the ASU site. Picochlorum celeri achieved the best productivity from May to September, with Monoraphidium minutum 26B-AM being used in October, November, March, and April, and Tetraselmis striata employed during winter months (December through February). Beyond the standard SOT models, in Appendix C of this report we also present an industry case study evaluating several scenarios reflective of outdoor cultivation data furnished by an industry collaborator. This case study provides a supplementary datapoint on work being performed elsewhere achieving comparable cultivation productivity with more favorable compositional quality, producing biomass enriched in lipids as may be more optimal for conversion upgrading to fuels and products.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Algal Biomass Production via Open Pond Algae Farm Cultivation: 2023 State of Technology and Future Research

The annual State of Technology (SOT) assessment is an essential activity for platform research conducted under the Bioenergy Technologies Office (BETO). It allows for the impact of research progress (both directly achieved in-house at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory [NREL] and furnished by partner organizations) to be quantified in terms of economic improvements in the overall biofuel production process for a particular biomass processing pathway, whether based on terrestrial or algal biomass feedstocks. As such, initial benchmarks can be established for currently demonstrated performance, and progress can be tracked toward out-year goals to ultimately demonstrate economically viable biofuel technologies. NREL's algae SOT benchmarking efforts historically focused both on front-end algal biomass production and separately on back-end conversion to fuels through NREL's "combined algae processing" (CAP) pathway. The production model is based on outdoor long-term cultivation data, enabled by comprehensive algal biomass production trials conducted under the Development of Integrated Screening, Cultivar Optimization, and Verification Research (DISCOVR) consortium efforts, driven by data furnished by Arizona State University (ASU) at the Arizona Center for Algae Technology and Innovation (AzCATI) testbed site. The CAP model is based on experimental efforts conducted primarily under NREL research and development projects. This report focuses on front-end algal biomass production, documenting the pertinent algal biomass cultivation parameters that were input to the NREL open pond algae farm model. Through partnerships under DISCOVR, collaborators at ASU furnished details on cultivation performance metrics including biomass productivity and harvest densities for recent growth trials done at the AzCATI site. The resulting biomass productivity was calculated at 16.7 g/m 2 /day (ash-free dry weight [AFDW], annual average) for seasonal cultivation of Picochlorum celeri TG2 and Monoraphidium minutum 26B-AM biomass strains at the ASU site. Picochlorum celeri achieved the best productivity from April to September, with Monoraphidium minutum 26B-AM being used between October and March. Tetraselmis striata LANL1001, usually part of the strain rotation in previous cultivation SOTs, was supplanted by Monoraphidium minutum 26B-AM in this year's outdoor cultivation trials. Finally, building from an industry case study presented in the 2022 SOT report, in the Appendix of this report we provide an update on further improved data furnished by an industry collaborator and resultant impacts on economics reflecting several seasonal scenarios. This case study provides a supplementary datapoint on work being performed elsewhere with a more dedicated focus on improved compositional quality, producing biomass enriched in lipids as may be more optimal for conversion upgrading to fuels and products.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

NASA NTRS1988

Mychonastes desiccatus Brown sp. nova (Chlorococcales, Chlorophyta)--an intertidal alga forming achlorophyllous desiccation-resistant cysts

An intertidal Chlorella-like alga Mychonastes desiccatus Brown sp. nova, capable of forming achlorophyllous desiccation-resistant cysts, has been grown in unialgal culture. This small alga was first isolated from a dried sample of a well-studied microbial mat. The mat, located at North Pond, Laguna Figueroa, San Quintin, Baja California, Mexico, is a vertically-stratified microbial community which forms laminated sediments. Morphology, pigment composition and G+C content are within the range typical for the genus Chlorella s. 1. Unlike other chlorellae, however, upon desiccation M. desiccatus forms an achlorophyllous, lipid-filled cyst (thick-walled resting stage) in which no plastid is evident. Rewetting leads to chloroplast differentiation, excystment and recovery of the fully green alga. During desiccation, sporopollenin is deposited within a thickening cell wall. Encystment cannot be induced by growth in the dark. The formation of desiccation-induced cysts allows the alga to survive frequent and intermittent periods of dryness. These chlorellae tolerate wide ranges of acidity and temperature; they both grow and form cysts in media in which sodium ions are replaced with potassium. Although the cysts tolerate crystalline salts, the cell grow optimally in concentrations corresponding from three-quarters to full-strength seawater.

NASA Discipline Exobiology↗

DOE OSTI2015

Engineering a Synthetic Microbial Consortium for Comprehensive Conversion of Algae Biomass into Terpenes for Advanced Biofuels and Bioproducts

Recent strategies for algae-based biofuels have primarily focused on biodiesel production by exploiting high algal lipid yields under nutrient stress conditions. However, under conditions supporting robust algal biomass accumulation, carbohydrate and proteins typically comprise up to ~80% of the ash-free dry weight of algae biomass. Therefore, comprehensive utilization of algal biomass for production of multipurpose intermediate- to high-value bio-based products will promote scale-up of algae production and processing to commodity volumes. Terpenes are hydrocarbon and hydrocarbon-like (C:O>10:1) compounds with high energy density, and are therefore potentially promising candidates for the next generation of value added bio-based chemicals and “drop-in” replacements for petroleum-based fuels. In this study, we demonstrated the feasibility of bioconversion of proteins into sesquiterpene compounds as well as comprehensive bioconversion of algal carbohydrates and proteins into biofuels. To achieve this, the mevalonate pathway was reconstructed into an E. coli chassis with six different terpene synthases (TSs). Strains containing the various TSs produced a spectrum of sesquiterpene compounds in minimal medium containing amino acids as the sole carbon source. The sesquiterpene production was optimized through three different regulation strategies using chamigrene synthase as an example. The highest total terpene titer reached 166 mg/L, and was achieved by applying a strategy to minimize mevalonate accumulation in vivo. The highest yields of total terpene were produced under reduced IPTG induction levels (0.25 mM), reduced induction temperature (25°C), and elevated substrate concentration (20 g/L amino acid mixture). A synthetic bioconversion consortium consisting of two engineering E. coli strains (DH1-TS and YH40-TS) with reconstructed terpene biosynthetic pathways was designed for comprehensive single-pot conversion of algal carbohydrates and proteins to sesquiterpenes. The consortium yielded the highest total terpene yields (187 mg/L) at an inoculum ratio 2:1 of strain YH40-TS: DH1-TS, corresponding to 31 mg fuel/g algae biomass ash free dry weight. This study therefore demonstrates a feasible process for comprehensive algal biofuel production.

algae biofuel↗

DOE OSTI2023

Pretreatment of Algae for the Production of Fuels and Chemical Coproducts

Algal biomass is a promising resource for producing renewable fuels and chemicals, but despite decades of research, algal biorefining remains in a pre-commercial state. Recent economic analyses have indicated that high-value co-products are necessary to offset the cost of fuel production, implying the need for algae fractionation technology. One promising fractionation approach is Combined Algal Processing (CAP), which pretreats and extracts algal biomass to produce a fermentable aqueous hydrolysate, an organic lipid fraction, and a residual solids fraction. The CAP approach has historically employed a dilute acid pretreatment to lyse cells and solubilize algal carbohydrates for fermentation of the hydrolysate phase, but we recently identified alternative pretreatments with the potential to decrease costs and environmental impacts, including different implementations of dilute acid pretreatment, dilute alkali pretreatment, enzymatic pretreatment, and flash hydrolysis. We conducted a screening of six different pretreatment approaches across nine algae strains of varying composition, and measured pretreatment effectiveness as a combination of carbon and nitrogen solubilization, lipid extraction yield, and lipid speciation. In this screening, we found traditional dilute acid pretreatment to provide the most robust pretreatment performance, though other pretreatments were competitive, and some performed better for certain strains of algae. These results highlight the interplay between algae composition and pretreatment effectiveness.

algae↗

DOE OSTI2020

Algal Biomass Conversion to Fuels via Combined Algae Processing (CAP): 2019 State of Technology and Future Research

NREL’s algae state of technology benchmarking efforts focus both on front-end algal biomass production and separately on back-end conversion to fuels through NREL’s “combined algae processing” (CAP) pathway. The production model is based on outdoor long-term cultivation data, enabled by comprehensive algal biomass production trials conducted under the Development of Integrated Screening, Cultivar Optimization, and Verification Research consortium (DISCOVR) efforts, driven by data furnished by Arizona State University (ASU) at the Arizona Center for Algae Technology and Innovation (AzCATI) testbed site. The CAP model is based on experimental efforts conducted under NREL research and development projects. This report focuses on back-end conversion of algal biomass through the CAP pathway, highlighting the 2019 updates to minimum fuel selling price (MFSP). This milestone reports on key process sustainability indicators for the CAP conversion stage including mass and carbon yields to fuels and coproducts, freshwater consumption, and facility power balances/natural gas demands.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2017

Evaluation of light energy to H 2 energy conversion efficiency in thin films of cyanobacteria and green alga under photoautotrophic conditions

Cyanobacteria and green algae harness solar energy to split water and to fix CO 2 . Under specific conditions, they are capable of photoproduction of molecular hydrogen (H 2 ). This study compares the light-energy-to-hydrogen-energy conversion efficiency (LHCE) in two heterocystous, N 2 -fixing cyanobacteria (wild-type Calothrix sp. strain 336/3 and the ΔhupL mutant of Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120) and in the sulfur-deprived green alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii strain CC-124, after entrapment of the cells in thin Ca 2+ -alginate films. The experiments, performed under photoautotrophic conditions, showed higher LHCEs in the cyanobacteria as compared to the green alga. The highest efficiency of ca. 2.5% was obtained in films of the entrapped ΔhupL strain under low light condition (2.9 W m -2 ). Calothrix sp. 336/3 films produced H 2 with a maximum efficiency of 0.6% under 2.9 W m -2 , while C. reinhardtii films produced H 2 most efficiently under moderate light (0.14% at 12.1 W m -2 ). Exposure of the films to light above 16 W m -2 led to noticeable oxidative stress in all three strains, which increased with light intensity. The presence of oxidative stress was confirmed by increased (i) degradation of chlorophylls and some structural carotenoids (such as β-carotene), (ii) production of hydroxylated carotenoids (such as zeaxanthin), and (iii) carbonylation of proteins. We conclude that the H 2 photoproduction efficiency in immobilized algae and cyanobacteria can be further improved by entrapping cultures in immobilization matrices with increased permeability for gases, especially oxygen, while matrices with low porosity produced increased amounts of xanthophylls and other antioxidant compounds.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2019

Bacterial communities protect the alga Microchloropsis salina from grazing by the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis

Open algal ponds are likely to succumb to unpredictable, devastating crashes by one or several deleterious species. Developing methodology to mitigate or prevent pond crashes will increase algal biomass production, drive down costs for algae farmers, and reduce the risk involved with algae cultivation, making it more favorable for investment by entrepreneurs and biotechnology companies. In this work, we postulate that specific algal-bacterial co-cultures grown with the green alga Microchloropsis salina prevented grazing by the marine rotifer, Brachionus plicatilis. We obtained seven algal-bacterial co-cultures from crashed rotifer cultures, maintained them in co-culture with Microchloropsis salina , and used a microalgal survival assay to determine that algae present in each co-culture were protected from rotifer grazing and culture crash. After months of routinely diluting and maintaining these seven algal-bacterial co-cultures, we repeated the assay and found the opposite result: none of the seven bacterial communities protected the microalgae from rotifer grazing. We performed 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing on the protective and nonprotective co-culture samples and identified substantial differences in the makeup of the bacterial communities. Protective bacterial communities consisted primarily of Alphaproteobacteria (Rhodobacteraceae) and Gammaproteobacteria ( Marinobacter , Pseudomonas, Methylophaga ) while nonprotective bacterial communities were less diverse and missing many putatively crucial members. We compared the seven protective communities with the seven nonprotective communities and we correlated specific bacterial amplicon sequence variants with algal protection. With these data, our future research will aim to define and develop an engineered-microbiome that can stabilize industrial Microchloropsis salina cultures by protecting against grazer-induced pond crashes.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2014

A novel ether-linked phytol-containing digalactosylglycerolipid in the marine green alga, Ulva pertusa

Highlights: • Alkaline-resistant galactolipid, AEGL, was found in marine algae. • The sugar moiety of AEGL is identical to that of digalactosyldiacylglycerol. • AEGL is the first identified glycolipid that possesses an ether-linked phytol. • AEGL is ubiquitously distributed in green, red and brown marine algae. - Abstract: Galactosylglycerolipids (GGLs) and chlorophyll are characteristic components of chloroplast in photosynthetic organisms. Although chlorophyll is anchored to the thylakoid membrane by phytol (tetramethylhexadecenol), this isoprenoid alcohol has never been found as a constituent of GGLs. We here described a novel GGL, in which phytol was linked to the glycerol backbone via an ether linkage. This unique GGL was identified as an Alkaline-resistant and Endogalactosylceramidase (EGALC)-sensitive GlycoLipid (AEGL) in the marine green alga, Ulva pertusa. EGALC is an enzyme that is specific to the R-Galα/β1-6Galβ1-structure of galactolipids. The structure of U. pertusa AEGL was determined following its purification to 1-O-phytyl-3-O-Galα1-6Galβ1-sn-glycerol by mass spectrometric and nuclear magnetic resonance analyses. AEGLs were ubiquitously distributed in not only green, but also red and brown marine algae; however, they were rarely detected in terrestrial plants, eukaryotic phytoplankton, or cyanobacteria.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

Biotechnological advances in algae-based foods: applications in nutrition and microbiome health

Algae are a sustainable, nutrient-rich resource with growing potential in food biotechnology. Their ability to thrive in diverse environments makes them a promising alternative to conventional crops. Rich in proteins, essential fatty acids, and bioactive compounds, algae support the development of functional foods, including plant-based meat and seafood alternatives. Advances in synthetic biology and fermentation have enhanced algal nutrient profiles and enabled novel applications. Algae-derived polysaccharides, such as alginate, fucoidan, laminarin, and porphyran, exhibit prebiotic effects by modulating the gut microbiota and promoting SCFA production. Enzymatic hydrolysis efficiently produces bioactive oligosaccharides, while engineered microbial systems support scalable production. Algae also enable synbiotic food development by serving as both prebiotic substrates and probiotic carriers.

Yu, Sora↗

DOE OSTI2018

Evaluation of lipid extractability after flash hydrolysis of algae

Microalgae is identified as a promising feedstock for producing renewable liquid transportation fuels; however, lipids extraction from microalgae for downstream processing to biofuels is one of the important challenges for algal based biorefineries. This work aims at evaluating the potential of applying flash hydrolysis (FH) as a chemical-free technique to increase the lipids extractability of algal biomass as well as its integration with the hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) of microalgae to enhance the biocrude yields and characteristics for fuel production. To this aim, the FH process was performed on three different algal species (Scenedesmus sp., Nannochloropsis sp., and Chlorella vulgaris) at 280 degrees C and 10 s of residence time. Following FH, in addition to the nutrients rich hydrolysate, approximately, 40 wt% of solids containing almost all (>90 wt%) the lipids termed as biofuels intermediates (BI), were recovered. Kinetics study on lipids extractability from the BI and their lipid profile analyses were conducted for each algal species. The results showed that the FH process had significantly enhanced the lipids extractability. For all three algae species, lipid yields from BI were higher than that of the raw algae. Lipid yields of Chlorella vulgaris in the first 15 min were more than five times higher (52.3 +/- 0.8 vs. 10.7 +/- 0.9 wt%) than that of raw algae during n-hexane based solvent extraction. The kinetics of lipids extractability followed a zero-order reaction rate for all wet raw microalgae and the BI of Scenedesmus sp., while the BI recovered from the other two algal species were determined as a second-order reaction. Comparison of fatty acids profiles indicated the contribution of the FH process in saturating fatty acids. Subsequent to lipids extraction, a conventional hydrothermal liquefaction was performed at 350 degrees C and 1 h to compare the biocrude yields from raw versus BI of Chlorella vulgaris microalgae. The results showed that the biocrude yields from the BI and its quality was significantly enhanced post FH than that of raw algae. The FH process was proven to be a viable option for lipid extraction by increasing the extent of recovery and decreasing the extraction time. Its integration with HTL notably impact the biocrude yields and characteristics for fuel production.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2014

Wide bandgap engineering of (AlGa){sub 2}O{sub 3} films

Bandgap tunable (AlGa){sub 2}O{sub 3} films were deposited on sapphire substrates by pulsed laser deposition (PLD). The deposited films are of high transmittance as measured by spectrophotometer. The Al content in films is almost the same as that in targets. The measurement of bandgap energies by examining the onset of inelastic energy loss in core-level atomic spectra using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy is proved to be valid for determining the bandgap of (AlGa){sub 2}O{sub 3} films as it is in good agreement with the bandgap values from transmittance spectra. The measured bandgap of (AlGa){sub 2}O{sub 3} films increases continuously with the Al content covering the whole Al content range from about 5 to 7 eV, indicating PLD is a promising growth technology for growing bandgap tunable (AlGa){sub 2}O{sub 3} films.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗

DOE OSTI2024

MOCVD growth of Si-doped α-(AlGa) 2 O 3 on m-plane α-Al 2 O 3 substrates

We reported the growth of (AlGa) 2 O 3 layers on ($10\overline{10}$) α-Al 2 O 3 substrates using cold-wall metalorganic chemical vapor deposition, and the electrical characterization of Si-doped (AlGa) 2 O 3 layers. In the Ga 2 O 3 growth, the α phase was dominant at low growth temperature, achieving the growth rate of 2.4 μm h –1 at 650 °C. Sheet resistance and electrical conductivity of the Ga 2 O 3 layers with a Si concentration of 3 × 10 20 cm –3 were 1 × 10 4 Ω/square and 8.3 S cm –1 , respectively, at the measurement temperature of 500 °C. The Al composition in the (AlGa) 2 O 3 layers was controlled from 0% to 74%. In our initial attempts, we obtained electrically conductive α-(AlGa) 2 O 3 layers by Si doping (2 × 10 –9 S cm –1 in the sample with an Al composition of 56%). Finally, hybrid functional calculations suggest the conductivities are limited by compensation of Si through cation vacancy complexes, and not by the significant amounts of co-incorporated C and N that are predicted to be electrically passivated by hydrogen.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

NASA NTRS2003

Growth and Metabolism of the Green Alga, Chlorella Pyrenoidosa, in Simulated Microgravity

The effect of microgravity on living organisms during space flight has been a topic of interest for some time, and a substantial body of knowledge on the subject has accumulated. Despite this, comparatively little information is available regarding the influence of microgravity on algae, even though it has been suggested for long duration flight or occupancy in space that plant growth systems, including both higher plants and algae, are likely to be necessary for bioregenerative life support systems. High-Aspect-Ratio Rotating-Wall Vessel or HARV bioreactors developed at Johnson Space Center provide a laboratory-based approach to investigating the effects of microgravity on cellular reactions. In this study, the HARV bioreactor was used to examine the influence of simulated microgravity on the growth and metabolism of the green alga, Chlorella pyrenoidosa. After the first 2 days of culture, cell numbers increased more slowly in simulated microgravity than in the HARV gravity control; after 7 days, growth in simulated microgravity was just over half (58%) that of the gravity control and at 14 days it was less than half (42%). Chlorophyll and protein were also followed as indices of cell competence and function; as with growth, after 2-3 days, protein and chlorophyll levels were reduced in modeled microgravity compared to gravity controls. Photosynthesis is a sensitive biochemical index of the fitness of photosynthetic organisms; thus, CO2-dependent O2 evolution was tested as a measure of photosynthetic capacity of cells grown in simulated microgravity. When data were expressed with respect to cell number, modeled microgravity appeared to have little effect on CO2 fixation. Thus, even though the overall growth rate was lower for cells cultured in microgravity, the photosynthetic capacity of the cells appears to be unaffected. Cells grown in simulated microgravity formed loose clumps or aggregates within about 2 days of culture, with aggregation increasing over time. Presently, the basis for, or significance of, the cell aggregation is unknown. The results from this study suggest that cell growth and morphological characteristics of green algae may be altered by culture in simulated microgravity. The data obtained to date should provide a solid basis for additional experimentation regarding the influence of modeled microgravity on cell morphology, physiological activity, protein production and possibly gene expression in algal and plant cell systems. The final aim of the study is to provide useful information to elucidate the underlying mechanism for the biological effects of microgravity on cells.

Mills, W. Ronald↗

NASA NTRS2013

Algae Bioreactor Using Submerged Enclosures with Semi-Permeable Membranes

Methods for producing hydrocarbons, including oil, by processing algae and/or other micro-organisms in an aquatic environment. Flexible bags (e.g., plastic) with CO.sub.2/O.sub.2 exchange membranes, suspended at a controllable depth in a first liquid (e.g., seawater), receive a second liquid (e.g., liquid effluent from a "dead zone") containing seeds for algae growth. The algae are cultivated and harvested in the bags, after most of the second liquid is removed by forward osmosis through liquid exchange membranes. The algae are removed and processed, and the bags are cleaned and reused.

Trent, Jonathan D↗

DOE OSTI2014

Transgenic algae engineered for higher performance

The present disclosure relates to transgenic algae having increased growth characteristics, and methods of increasing growth characteristics of algae. In particular, the disclosure relates to transgenic algae comprising a glutamine phenylpyruvate transaminase transgene and to transgenic algae comprising a glutamine phenylpyruvate transaminase transgene and a glutamine synthetase.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2019

Carbon fixation systems in plants and algae

Provided are methods for elevating cyclic electron transfer activity, improving carbon concentration, and enhancing carbon fixation in C3 and C4 plants, and algae, and producing biomass or other products from C3 or C4 plants, and algae, selected from among, for example, starches, oils, fatty acids, lipids, cellulose or other carbohydrates, alcohols, sugars, nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, fragrance and flavoring compounds, and organic acids, as well as transgenic plants produced thereby. These methods and transgenic plants and algae encompass the expression, or overexpression, of various combinations of genes that improve carbon concentrating systems in plants and algae, such as bicarbonate transport proteins, carbonic anhydrase, light driven proton pump, cyclic electron flow regulators, etc.

Sayre, Richard Thomas↗

DOE OSTI2014

Algae as a Bio-Feedstock

There have been significant advances in all aspects of producing fuel from algae in the last four years. If one types in “algae” to Google Scholar from 2011 to present, 45,000 “results” are found; and 16,600 are found for “algae biofuels”. Although researchers are making many advances, the industry has gone through some challenges especially in light of the processing of natural gas and shale oils in the United States and Canada. However, there are a number of companies that specialize in production of algal products and technologies including but not limited to Algenol, Bioprocess Algae, Cellana, Heliae, LiveFuels, and Sapphire Energy. Consortium such as the National Alliance for Biofuels and Bioproducts (NAABB) and National Sustainable Algal Biofuels Consortium (SABC) were formed and funded primarily by the Department of Energy to investigate the entire value chain from advances in algal biology through conversion to fuel. In this article recent advances are highlighted along with areas for continued research and development.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗