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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 1,225 records · Page 68
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2017

The Eruption of a Small-scale Emerging Flux Rope as the Driver of an M-class Flare and of a Coronal Mass Ejection

Solar flares and coronal mass ejections are the most powerful explosions in the Sun. They are major sources of potentially destructive space weather conditions. However, the possible causes of their initiation remain controversial. Using high-resolution data observed by the New Solar Telescope of Big Bear Solar Observatory, supplemented by Solar Dynamics Observatory observations, we present unusual observations of a small-scale emerging flux rope near a large sunspot, whose eruption produced an M-class flare and a coronal mass ejection. The presence of the small-scale flux rope was indicated by static nonlinear force-free field extrapolation as well as data-driven magnetohydrodynamics modeling of the dynamic evolution of the coronal three-dimensional magnetic field. During the emergence of the flux rope, rotation of satellite sunspots at the footpoints of the flux rope was observed. Meanwhile, the Lorentz force, magnetic energy, vertical current, and transverse fields were increasing during this phase. The free energy from the magnetic flux emergence and twisting magnetic fields is sufficient to power the M-class flare. These observations present, for the first time, the complete process, from the emergence of the small-scale flux rope, to the production of solar eruptions.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
NASA NTRS1980

Helium synthesis, neutrino flavors, and cosmological implications

The problem of the production of helium in the big bang is reexamined in the light of several recent astrophysical observations. These data, and theoretical particle-physics considerations, lead to some important inconsistencies in the standard big-bang model and suggest that a more complicated picture is needed. Thus, recent constraints on the number of neutrino flavors, as well as constraints on the mean density (openness) of the universe, need not be valid.

Stecker, F. W.↗
NASA NTRS1979

Helium synthesis, neutrino flavors, and cosmological implications

The problem of the production of helium in big bang cosmology is re-examined in the light of several recent astrophysical observations. These data, and theoretical particle physics considerations, lead to some important inconsistencies in the standard big bang model and suggest that a more complicated picture is needed. Thus, recent constraints on the number of neutrino flavors, as well as constraints on the mean density (openness) of the universe, need not be valid.

Stecker, F. W.↗
DOE OSTI2020

Measurement of the Li 7 ( γ , t ) He 4 ground-state cross section between E γ = 4.4 and 10 MeV

Here, the Li 7 ( γ , t ) He 4 ground state cross section was measured for the first time using monoenergetic γ rays with energies between 4.4 and 10 MeV at the High Intensity Gamma-ray Source. The reaction is important for the primordial Li problem and for testing our understanding of the mirror α -capture reactions H 3 ( α , γ ) Li 7 and He 3 ( α , γ ) Be 7 . Although over the last 30 years most measurements of the H 3 ( α , γ ) Li 7 reaction have concentrated in an energy range below E γ = 3.65 MeV, measurements at higher energies could potentially restrict the extrapolation to astrophysically important energies. The experimental arrangement for measuring the Li 7 ( γ , t ) He 4 reaction included a large-area silicon detector array and several beam characterization instruments. The experimental astrophysical S factor of H 3 ( α , γ ) calculated from the present data was fitted using the R -matrix formalism. The results are in disagreement with previous experimental measurements in the same energy range but the extrapolated S factor agrees with the potential model calculation and lower energy experimental data.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Hierarchical Bayesian Thermonuclear Rate for the 7 Be(n,p) 7 Li Big Bang Nucleosynthesis Reaction

Big Bang nucleosynthesis provides the earliest probe of standard model physics, at a time when the universe was less than 1000 seconds old. It determines the abundances of the lightest nuclides, which give rise to the subsequent history of the visible matter in the universe. This work derives new 7 Be(n,p) 7 Li thermonuclear reaction rates based on all available experimental information. This reaction sensitively impacts the primordial abundances of 7 Be and 7 Li during big bang nucleosynthesis. We critically evaluate all available data and disregard experimental results that are questionable. For the nuclear model, we adopt an incoherent sum of single-level, two-channel, R -matrix approximation expressions, which are implemented into a hierarchical Bayesian model, to analyze the remaining six data sets we deem most reliable. In the fitting of the data, we consistently model all known sources of uncertainty, including discrepant absolute normalizations of different data sets, and also take the variation of the neutron and proton channel radii into account, hence providing less biased estimates of the 7 Be(n,p) 7 Li thermonuclear rates. From the resulting posteriors, we extract R -matrix parameters ($E_r, γ^2_n, γ^2_p$) and derive excitation energies and partial and total widths. Our fit is sensitive to the contributions of the first three levels above the neutron threshold. Reaction rates were computed by integrating 10,000 samples of the reduced cross section. Our 7 Be(n,p) 7 Li thermonuclear rates have uncertainties between 1.5% and 2.0% at temperatures of ≤1 GK. Finally, we compare our rates to previous results and find that the 7 Be(n,p) 7 Li rates most commonly used in big bang simulations have uncertainties that are too optimistic.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
NASA NTRS1985

BIG MAC: A bolometer array for mid-infrared astronomy, Center Director's Discretionary Fund

The infrared array referred to as Big Mac (for Marshall Array Camera), was designed for ground based astronomical observations in the wavelength range 5 to 35 microns. It contains 20 discrete gallium-doped germanium bolometer detectors at a temperature of 1.4K. Each bolometer is irradiated by a square field mirror constituting a single pixel of the array. The mirrors are arranged contiguously in four columns and five rows, thus defining the array configuration. Big Mac utilized cold reimaging optics and an up looking dewar. The total Big Mac system also contains a telescope interface tube for mounting the dewar and a computer for data acquisition and processing. Initial astronomical observations at a major infrared observatory indicate that Big Mac performance is excellent, having achieved the design specifications and making this instrument an outstanding tool for astrophysics.

Telesco, C. M.↗
DOE OSTI2024

Perturbation of soil organic carbon induced by land-use change from primary forest

Abstract The impact of land-use change (LUC) on soil organic carbon (SOC) has been a wide concern of land management policymakers because CO 2 emissions induced by LUC have been the second largest carbon source worldwide. However, due to insufficient data quality and limited biome coverage, a global big picture of the impact of LUC on SOC is still not clear. This study conducted a meta-analysis on 288 independent observations sourced from 62 peer-reviewed papers to provide a global summary of the change in SOC after the conversion of primary forests into other land-use types. The conversion of primary forest to cropland resulted in the most severe SOC loss (−33.2%), followed by conversion into plantation forests (−22.3%) and secondary forests (−19.1%). Nonetheless, SOC increased by 9.1% after a conversion from primary forests into pasture. More SOC loss was found at sites with lower precipitation for primary forests converted to cropland and plantation forests. The SOC loss decreased consistently with increasing mean annual temperature (MAT) for all four types of LUC. Moreover, the loss of SOC tended to worsen over time when primary forests are converted to cropland or plantation forests. In contrast, SOC loss recovered over time following conversion to secondary forests. The gain of SOC gradually increased over time after conversion to pastures. To conclude, the changes in SOC are related not only to the land-use type but also to precipitation, temperature and turn years after LUC. Due to limited data, this study focuses on soil profiles within 30 cm depth, and future research should explore SOC dynamics induced by LUC at greater depths. Overall, cases of SOC loss of approximately 30% following deforestation were very common (except for conversion to pasture), and the results of this study show that the loss of SOC following LUC should be carefully considered and monitored in land management.

Zhang, Zhiyuan (ORCID:0000000223407001)↗
DOE OSTI2015

Analytic reconstruction algorithms for triple-source CT with horizontal data truncation

Purpose: This paper explores a triple-source imaging method with horizontal data truncation to enlarge the field of view (FOV) for big objects. Methods: The study is conducted by using theoretical analysis, mathematical deduction, and numerical simulations. The proposed algorithms are implemented in c + + and MATLAB. While the basic platform is constructed in MATLAB, the computationally intensive segments are coded in c + +, which are linked via a MEX interface. Results: A triple-source circular scanning configuration with horizontal data truncation is developed, where three pairs of x-ray sources and detectors are unevenly distributed on the same circle to cover the whole imaging object. For this triple-source configuration, a fan-beam filtered backprojection-type algorithm is derived for truncated full-scan projections without data rebinning. The algorithm is also extended for horizontally truncated half-scan projections and cone-beam projections in a Feldkamp-type framework. Using their method, the FOV is enlarged twofold to threefold to scan bigger objects with high speed and quality. The numerical simulation results confirm the correctness and effectiveness of the developed algorithms. Conclusions: The triple-source scanning configuration with horizontal data truncation cannot only keep most of the advantages of a traditional multisource system but also cover a larger FOV for big imaging objects. In addition, because the filtering is shift-invariant, the proposed algorithms are very fast and easily parallelized on graphic processing units.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2026

WholeTraveler Anonymized Data Phase 1

Phase 1 of the WholeTraveler Study data collection consisted of an online-only survey. This survey captured data on three categories of observable variation in the population relevant to transportation decisions. First, the survey collected traditional demographic data such as age, gender, income, and education level. Second, it collected data across personality, psychological, and preference categories. This included: 1. The "Big Five" inventory personality traits: openness to new experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism; 2. Risk and time preferences; and 3. Environmental preferences. Third, the survey collected data on historical behavior patterns including: 1. Adoption of (as well as interest in) new technologies or innovations (e.g., smartphones, PEVs, solar panels, adaptive cruise control [ACC]); 2. Car ownership history and current car ownership status; 3. Recent mode use across different time scales (e.g., previous week, previous month, previous year); and 4. Timing of major life events such as starting a family as well as overall lifecycle trajectory patterns. Data from Phase 1 and Phase 2 are linked by a unique respondent identifier. Anonymized versions of the Phase 1 and Phase 2 data are both available on Livewire.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
NASA NTRS1960

Noise Considerations for Manned Reentry Vehicles

Noise measurements pertaining mainly to the static firing, launch, 0 and exit flight phases are presented for three rocket-powered vehicles 4 in the Project Mercury test program. Both internal and external data 4 from onboard recordings are presented for a range of Mach numbers and dynamic pressures and for different external vehicle shapes. The main sources of noise are noted to be the rocket engines during static firing and launch and the aerodynamic boundary layer during the high-dynamic-pressure portions of the flight. Rocket-engine noise measurements along the surface of the Mercury Big Joe vehicle were noted to correlate well with data from small models and available data for other large rockets. Measurements have indicated that the aerodynamic noise pressures increase approximately as the dynamic pressure increases and may vary according to the external shape of the vehicle, the highest noise levels being associated with conditions of flow separation. There is also a trend for the aerodynamic noise spectra to peak at higher frequencies as the flight Mach number increases.

Hilton, David A.↗
DOE OSTI2022

Defining and applying an electricity demand flexibility benchmarking metrics framework for grid-interactive efficient commercial buildings

Building demand flexibility (DF) research has recently gained attention. To unlock building DF as a predictable grid resource, we must establish a quantitative understanding of the resource size, performance variability, and predictability based on large empirical datasets. Researchers have proposed various sets of theoretical metrics to measure this performance. Some metrics have been applied to simulation results, but most fall short of exploring the complexities in real building applications. There are practical metrics used in individual demand response field studies but they alone cannot fulfil the job of DF benchmarking across a diverse group of buildings. The electrical grid's geographically diverse and changing nature presents challenges to comparing building DF performance measured under different conditions (i.e., benchmarking DF). To address this challenge, a novel DF benchmarking framework focused on load shedding and shifting is presented; the foundation is a set of simple, proven single-event metrics with attributes describing event conditions. These enable benchmarking and visualization in different dimensions for identifying trends that represent how these attributes influence DF. To test its feasibility and scalability, the DF framework was applied to two case studies of 11 office buildings and 121 big-box retail buildings with demand response participation data. Furthermore, these examples provided a pathway for using both building level benchmarking and aggregation to extract insights into building DF about magnitude, consistency, and influential factors. Potential applications of the framework and real-world values have been identified for grid and building stakeholders.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2020

The energy footprint of automotive electronic sensors

We discuss how Information and communication technologies (ICT) have emerged as one of the leading technologies to reduce global emissions, particularly in the mobility sector. Automotive electronics, such as sensors/actuators and microcontrollers (commonly known as electronic control units (ECU) which control one or more of the electrical systems or subsystems in a vehicle), play a key role in ICT. Sensors/actuators are key in electronic ICT devices, starting with the data collection and data communication with the internet. The latest two big trends of electrification and automation in vehicles, are projected to increase the use of worldwide automotive sensors from 7.5 billion units in 2017 to 11.0 billion units by the year 2024. A representative state-of-the art automotive sensor system, (i.e., an ultrasonic backup system), including the ECUs controlling the vehicle electrical systems/subsystems, has been considered to estimate the energy footprint in terms of manufacturing and operational energy of global automotive sensors use. A widely used life cycle energy assessment method (i.e., cumulative energy demand) was used as both direct and indirect (including the extraction, manufacturing, and disposal of the raw and auxiliary materials) energy use can be considered for the energy footprint estimation. The embodied manufacturing energy impacts of the system was estimated to be 559 MJ/system, compared to the 417 MJ/system for lifetime system power and additional gasoline use. The share of purchased energy to the embodied energy where the upstream energy isn't included in the former case, is less than 10% and ~ 85% for the component manufacturing and vehicle operation energy uses, respectively. As the purpose of this ultrasonic backup system is to prevent rear crashes, an estimated 1.0 MJ/system is avoided from reduced lifetime vehicular repairs (from an estimated 11% chance of requiring a rear bumper replacement). While all of this is small compared to the overall automotive manufacturing and use energy, the 11 billion automotive sensors expected to be produced in 2024 could require 1540 PJ for manufacturing and those sensors would require an additional 780–1150 PJ for lifetime energy use.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2018

Final Technical Report: Moving ASR Cloud Microphysical Retrievals Beyond the Vertical Column

Clouds of all types play important roles in atmospheric heating, surface heating and emission of radiation, hence energy, to space. Clouds not only affect atmospheric heating via their impacts on solar and terrestrial radiation, they also release kinetic energy to the atmosphere when they form and they extract kinetic energy from the atmosphere when they evaporate. To understand the impacts of clouds on weather and climate, one must be able to make accurate observations of the amount of water associated with them and the impact of this water on atmospheric and surface heating rates. One important cloud type is liquid water clouds. Liquid clouds are often found in the boundary layers of Earth at altitudes from just above the surface to approximately 2000 m above it, at a variety of temperatures, including temperatures below the freezing point of liquid water (0 °C). As a result, they are important constituents over the world’s oceans as well as over cold, ice-covered surfaces such as in the Arctic. Observationally estimating the total amount of liquid contained in a column through a liquid water cloud can now be accomplished to acceptable accuracies (except for the thinnest, lowest liquid containing clouds) using instruments called passive microwave radiometers. However, observationally determining the spatial distribution of liquid within these columns has proven to be difficult. The focus of this project was on the application of two radars operating at two different frequencies to retrieve the distribution of liquid water within columns passing through liquid water clouds. Motivation in this project for using two different radars operating at different frequencies is that as overlapping (in space) beams from the two radars pass through the same column of liquid water cloud absorption of power from one beam (the 94-GHz beam) is greater than absorption of power from the other beam (the 35-GHz beam). Therefore, the difference in returned powers between the two radar beams with distance from the radars is proportional to the amount of liquid water that the two beams have passed through. Therefore, one can use the differences in power between the two beams with distance through a liquid water cloud to determine the distribution of liquid water throughout the cloud. The two radars used in this study are the Department of Energy (DOE) Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Program Ka-band Scanning ARM Cloud Radar (Ka-SACR) and the W-band Scanning ARM Cloud Radar (W-SACR). When this projected started in 2013, the Ka- and W-band SACRs were new technology, state-of-the-art sensors. To put together a sufficiently diverse and big set of test cases for the study, data from the SACRs deployed to NSA, SGP, TCAP and MAGIC were used, leading to a test set composed of 65 hours of suitable data spread over approximately 17 case study days. Using the Ka- and W-band SACR data from the case study periods, vertical distributions of liquid water content through liquid water clouds were retrieved. Because there are no other data sets with which to compare the retrievals, distributions of liquid water through a column were summed and compared to the total amounts of liquid water obtained by retrievals applied to passive microwave radiometer observations. The total amounts of liquid water (in units of millimeters, or the thickness in millimeters of the total liquid water in a vertical column if allowed to pool at the bottom of the column) between the two retrievals agreed to within 0.060 mm with a standard deviation of 0.31 mm, or to within 0.016 mm with a standard deviation of 0.12 mm once outliers were removed. The standard deviation of 0.12 mm was fairly independent of the total amount of liquid water in the clouds, indicating that retrieval errors were larger for clouds with smaller amounts of liquid in them. Errors in the retrieved total amounts of liquid were also found to be sensitive to the a priori information that was fed into the retrieval approach. Overall, standard deviations of 0.12 mm are sufficient for some cloud studies but for radiation studies standard deviations on the order of 0.02 mm need to be achieved for clouds with the lowest amounts of liquid water. Many modifications to the retrieval approach were tested subsequently in an attempt to reduce the standard deviations relative to the radiometer retrievals below 0.12 mm but none of them worked reliably. We decided to wait until the DOE ARM Program deployed its second generation SACR2s to its NSA and ENA sites for further retrieval evaluation. The SACR2s were engineered to better synchronize data between the Ka- and W-band radars, reducing potential sources of noise for radar retrieval of liquid water distributions within clouds. The SACR2s have improved in reliability recently and the system deployed to ENA is best positioned to provide the data to advance research on this path. This will be an ongoing research activity beyond the project because of the promise in SACR2 data from the DOE ARM ENA Facility.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2019

Optoelectronic Properties of C60 and C70 Fullerene Derivatives: Designing and Evaluating Novel Candidates for Efficient P3HT Polymer Solar Cells

Ten novel fullerene-derivatives (FDs) of C60 and C70 had been designed as acceptor for polymer solar cell (PSC) by employing the quantitative structure-property relationship (QSPR) model, which was developed strategically with a reasonably big pool of experimental power conversion efficiency (PCE) data. The QSPR model was checked and validated with stringent parameter and reliability of predicted PCE values of all designed FDs. They were assessed by the applicability domain (AD) and process randomization test. The predicted PCE of FDs range from 7.96 to 23.01. The obtained encouraging results led us to the additional theoretical analysis of the energetics and UV-Vis spectra of isolated dyes employing Density functional theory (DFT) and Time-dependent-DFT (TD-DFT) calculations using PBE/6-31G(d,p) and CAM-B3LYP/6-311G(d,p) level calculations, respectively. The FD4 is the best C60-derivatives candidates for PSCs as it has the lowest exciton binding energy, up-shifted lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) energy level to increase open-circuit voltage (VOC) and strong absorption in the UV region. In case of C70-derivatives, FD7 is potential candidate for future PSCs due to its strong absorption in UV-Vis region and lower exciton binding energy with higher VOC. Our optoelectronic results strongly support the developed QSPR model equation. Analyzing QSPR model and optoelectronic parameters, we concluded that the FD1, FD2, FD4, and FD10 are the most potential candidates for acceptor fragment of fullerene-based PSC. The outcomes of tactical molecular design followed by the investigation of optoelectronic features are suggested to be employed as a significant resource for the synthesis of FDs as an acceptor of PSCs.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
NASA NTRS1990

The extragalactic universe - An alternative view

It is argued that the currently popular cosmological model is subject to many doubts based on observational data which suggest that there never was a Big Bang. It is further argued that the observational evidence concerning nonthermal objects with large redshifts leads to the conclusion that these redshifts are largely intrinsic in origin. These objects do not lie at large cosmological distances, but rather much closer with z(c) less than about 0.1. This in turn means that there is no evidence for evolution in the discrete objects, and that what is seen in them are creation events involving the ejection of new matter from the nuclei of galaxies.

Arp, H. C.↗
NASA NTRS1991

Recent advances in coding theory for near error-free communications

Channel and source coding theories are discussed. The following subject areas are covered: large constraint length convolutional codes (the Galileo code); decoder design (the big Viterbi decoder); Voyager's and Galileo's data compression scheme; current research in data compression for images; neural networks for soft decoding; neural networks for source decoding; finite-state codes; and fractals for data compression.

Cheung, K.-M.↗
NASA NTRS2005

Spinoff 2005

Topics covered include: Lighting the Way for Quicker, Safer Healing; Discovering New Drugs on the Cellular Level; Hydrogen Sensors Boost Hybrids; Today s Models Losing Gas?; 3-D Highway in the Sky; Popping a Hole in High-Speed Pursuits; Monitoring Wake Vortices for More Efficient Airports; From Rockets to Racecars; All-Terrain Intelligent Robot Braves Battlefront to Save Lives; Keeping the Air Clean and Safe--An Anthrax Smoke Detector; Lightning Often Strikes Twice; Technology That's Ready and Able to Inspect Those Cables; Secure Networks for First Responders and Special Forces; Space Suit Spins; Cooking Dinner at Home--From the Office; Nanoscale Materials Make for Large-Scale Applications; NASA s Growing Commitment: The Space Garden; Bringing Thunder and Lightning Indoors; Forty-Year-Old Foam Springs Back With New Benefits; Experiments With Small Animals Rarely Go This Well; NASA, the Fisherman's Friend; Crystal-Clear Communication a Sweet-Sounding Success; Inertial Motion-Tracking Technology for Virtual 3-D; Then Why Do They Call Earth the Blue Planet?; Valiant 'Zero-Valent' Effort Restores Contaminated Grounds; Harnessing the Power of the Sun; Water and Air Measures That Make 'PureSense'; Remote Sensing for Farmers and Flood Watching; Pesticide-Free Device a Fatal Attraction for Mosquitoes Making the Most of Waste Energy Washing Away the Worries About Germs Celestial Software Scratches More Than the Surface A Search Engine That's Aware of Your Needs Fault-Detection Tool Has Companies 'Mining' Own Business; Software to Manage the Unmanageable; Tracking Electromagnetic Energy With SQUIDs; Taking the Risk Out of Risk Assessment; Satellite and Ground System Solutions at Your Fingertips; Structural Analysis Made 'NESSUSary'; Software of Seismic Proportions Promotes Enjoyable Learning; Making a Reliable Actuator Faster and More Affordable; Cost-Cutting Powdered Lubricant NASA s Radio Frequency Bolt Monitor: A Lifetime of Spinoffs Going End to End to Deliver High-Speed Data; Advanced Joining Technology: Simple, Strong, and Secure; Big Results From a Smaller Gearbox; Low-Pressure Generator Makes Cleanrooms Cleaner; and The Space Laser Business Model.

Source record↗
DOE OSTI2025

Barge Site - Avian Radar System / Derived Data

This is a combined data set of 67,410 bird/bat tracks from an avian radar system deployed on a research barge (MERLIN True3D, DeTect, Panama City, Florida, USA) and concurrent wind measurements from two scanning lidars (WindCube v2.1, Vaisala, Vantaa, Finland, and Halo XR+, Halo Photonics, Lannion, France). The research barge (16.5 m x 61 m) was deployed as part of the Wind Forecast Improvement Project (WFIP-3) off the northeast coast of the United States south of Massachusetts (40.9 deg N, 70.79 deg W). This data set comprises 5 weeks of data between August 27th 2024 and September 27th 2024. Radar data were provided by DeTect and Lidar data were accessed through the Wind Data Hub (wfip3/barg.WINDPROF.z01.a0) The data have been filtered and sorted into two size groups ("big" and "small") based on a clustering approach. See Snortland, A., Clerc, J., Hein, C., & Cotter, E. (2025). Wind as Driver of Bird and Bat Abundance, Flight Direction, Altitude, and Speed on the North Atlantic Shelf. arXiv preprint arXiv:2511.14983 for complete details. Data are provided in 2 files: "Birds" and "Birds_hourly" Birds: This file contains information about each of the 67,410 flying animal tracks detected by the radar during the data collection period, including parameters measured by the radar and wind information interpolated from the lidar wind measurements. We note that the raw radar dataset contained 301,618 tracks; tracks in this processed dataset were filtered based on the requirements described in Snortland et al. (2025). Birds_hourly: This file contains timeseries of the number of tracks detected per hour over the course of the data collection period, including wind conditions and sun position for each hour. These data were used for generalized additive modeling in Snortland et al. (2025).

17 WIND ENERGY↗