Engineering Papers⌕ Search

SEARCH · Engineering Papers

Results for “NOVA”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 1,225 records · Page 68
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2014

Numerical study of Alfvén eigenmodes in the Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak

Alfvén eigenmodes in up-down asymmetric tokamak equilibria are studied by a new magnetohydrodynamic eigenvalue code. The code is verified with the NOVA code for the Solovév equilibrium and then is used to study Alfvén eigenmodes in a up-down asymmetric equilibrium of the Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak. The frequency and mode structure of toroidicity-induced Alfvén eigenmodes are calculated. It is demonstrated numerically that up-down asymmetry induces phase variation in the eigenfunction across the major radius on the midplane.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2015

Very low-energy neutrino interactions

Neutrino-nucleus reaction cross sections are now evaluated rather accurately by shell-model (SM) or SM+RPA calculations based on recent advances in nuclear structure studies. Due to these achievements, reliable constraints on super-nova neutrino temperatures as well as neutrino oscillation parameters become possible. Supernova neutrino tempeatures are constrained from abundances of elements obtained by using new ν-nucleus reaction cross sections. A possibility of constructing supernova neutrino spectrum from beta-beam measurements is pointed out. Neutrino mass hierarchy and mixing angle θ{sub 13} can be determined from abundance ratio of {sup 7}Li/{sup 11}B, which is sensitive to the MSW matter oscillation effects in supernova explosions. Inverted mass hierarchy is shown to be statistically more favored based on a recent analysis of presolar grains. Effects of neutrino-neutrino interactions are also shown to play important roles in r-process nucleosynthesis. Importance and possibilities of direct measurements of ν-induced cross sections on {sup 40}Ar and {sup 208}Pb are discussed for future supernova neutrino detections. Recent calculations of the cross sections for ν-{sup 40}Ar are presented. The need for new theoretical evaluations of the cross sections for ν-{sup 208}Pb is pointed out. Challenges to experiments on coherent elastic scattering are presented.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2015

Study of quasi-elastic scattering in the NOνA near detector prototype

NOvA is a 14 kTon long-baseline neutrino oscillation experiment currently being installed in the NuMI off-axis neutrino beam produced at Fermilab. A 222 Ton prototype NOνA detector was built and operated in the neutrino beam for over a year to understand the response of the detector and its construction. Muon neutrino interaction data collected in this test are being analyzed to identify quasi-elastic charged-current interactions and measure the behavior of the quasi-elastic muon neutrino cross section.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2015

Tables of equation-of-state, thermodynamic properties, and shock Hugoniot for hot dense fluid deuterium

We present computational results and tables of the equation-of-state, thermodynamic properties, and shock Hugoniot for hot dense fluid deuterium. The present results are generated using a recently developed chemical model that takes into account different high density effects such as Coulomb interactions among charged particles, partial degeneracy, and intensive short range hard core repulsion. Internal partition functions are evaluated in a statistical-mechanically consistent way implementing recent developments in the literature. The shock Hugoniot curve derived from the present tables is overall in reasonable agreement with the Hugoniot derived from the Nova-laser shock wave experiments on liquid deuterium, showing that deuterium has a significantly higher compressibility than predicted by the SESAME tables or by Path Integral Monte Carlo calculations. Computational results are presented as surface plots for the dissociated fraction, degree of ionization, pressure, and specific internal energy for densities ranging from 0.0001 to 40 g/cm{sup 3} and temperatures from 2000 to ∼10{sup 6 }K. Tables for values of the above mentioned quantities in addition to the specific heat at constant pressure, c{sub p}, ratio of specific heats, c{sub p}/c{sub v}, sound speed and Hugoniot curve (for a specific initial state) are presented for practical use.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Code-to-code comparison and validation of the radiation-hydrodynamics capabilities of the FLASH code using a laboratory astrophysical jet

The potential for laser-produced plasmas to yield fundamental insights into high energy density physics (HEDP) and deliver other useful applications can sometimes be frustrated by uncertainties in modeling the properties and behavior of these plasmas using radiation-hydrodynamics codes. In an effort to overcome this and to corroborate the accuracy of the HEDP capabilities in the publicly available FLASH radiation-hydrodynamics code, we present detailed code-to-code comparisons between FLASH and the HYDRA code developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory using previously published HYDRA simulations from Grava et al. [Phys. Rev. E 78, 016403 (2008)]. That study describes a laser experiment that produced a jet-like feature that the authors compare to astrophysical jets. Importantly, the Grava et al. [Phys. Rev. E 78, 016403 (2008)] experiment included detailed x-ray interferometric measurements of electron number densities and a time-integrated measurement of the soft x-ray spectrum. Despite markedly different methods for treating the computational mesh, and different equations of state and opacity models, the FLASH results resemble the results from HYDRA and, most importantly, the experimental measurements of electron density. Having validated the FLASH code in this way, we use the code to further investigate and understand the formation of the jet seen in the Grava et al. [Phys. Rev. E 78, 016403 (2008)] experiment and discuss its relation to the Wan et al. [Phys. Rev. E 55, 6293 (1997)] experiment at the NOVA laser.

Orban, Chris (ORCID:0000000312004538)↗
DOE OSTI2024

The crucial role of diagnostics in achieving ignition on the National Ignition Facility (NIF)

Well over 100 diagnostics can operate on the National Ignition Facility (NIF) as a result of several decades of development on NIF, and before that on Nova, OMEGA, and earlier LLNL lasers. A subset of these have guided the approach to achieving ignition on the NIF in 2022 [H. Abu-Shawareb et al. (Indirect Drive ICF Collaboration), Phys. Rev. Lett. 129(7), 075001 (2022)]. Achieving ignition on NIF has required many types of experiments with this core set of diagnostics, some constraining known unknowns and some revealing surprises—arguably unknown unknowns. Early design work realized that the extreme precision required for ignition on NIF would require fine-tuning by experiment, that is, measuring and adjusting known unknowns. Many examples are given where the use of the core set of ignition diagnostics in experimental arrangements called platforms demonstrated control of the key theoretical parameters defined as shape, adiabat, velocity, and mix. The direction of the adjustments to input conditions is found either by trend analysis or, in many cases, by observing from the diagnostic data the direction to make an adjustment. In addition, diagnostics have revealed some unexpected or neglected known issues, which degrade performance, or unexpected issues, unknown unknowns. Some of these factors had been previously considered, but underestimated or difficult to calculate at the time. The overall methodology can be described as a variant of Popper's falsifiability philosophy [K. Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery (Hutchinson, 1974)]. This paper summarizes the role of ignition diagnostics in terms of falsification or validation of theory or experimental setup as well as uncovering unexpected issues. The journey to ignition started in the seventies with a 1-µm wavelength laser producing disastrous results. Diagnostics have guided us to the recent multi-decadal goal of demonstrating ignition and burn in the laboratory.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

The long road to ignition: An eyewitness account

This paper reviews the many twists and turns in the long journey that culminated in ignition in late 2022 using the laser heated indirect-drive approach to imploding DT filled targets at the National Ignition Facility (NIF), located at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL). We describe the early origins of the Laser Program at LLNL and key developments such as the paradigm shifting birth of high energy density physics (HEDP) studies with lasers, changes in choice of laser wavelength, and the development of key diagnostics and computer codes. Fulfilling the requirements of the multi-faceted Nova Technical Contract was a necessary condition for the approval of the NIF, but more importantly, the end of the Cold War and the cessation of nuclear testing were key catalysts in that approval, along with the ready-and-waiting field of HEDP. The inherent flexibility of the field of laser driven inertial confinement fusion played a fundamental role in achieving success at the NIF. We describe how the ultimately successful ignition target design evolved from the original “point design” target, through the lessons of experiment. All key aspects of that original design changed: The capsule's materials and size were changed; the hohlraum's materials, size, laser entrance hole size, and gas fills were also all changed, as were the laser pulse shapes that go along with all those changes. The philosophy to globally optimize performance for stability (by raising the adiabat and thus lowering the implosion convergence) was also key, as was progress in target fabrication, and in increasing NIF's energy output. The persistence of the research staff and the steadfast backing of our supporters were also necessary elements in this success. We gratefully acknowledge seven decades of researcher endeavors and four decades of the dedicated efforts of many hundreds of personnel across the globe who have participated in NIF construction, operation, target fabrication, diagnostic, and theoretical advances that have culminated in ignition.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Linear gyrokinetic simulations of toroidal Alfvén eigenmodes in the Mega-Amp Spherical Tokamak

Linear gyrokinetic (GK) simulations using the Gyrokinetic Toroidal Code (GTC) have been performed to investigate Toroidicity-driven Alfvén Eigenmodes (TAEs) driven by the neutral beam injection (NBI) induced fast ions in the Mega-Amp Spherical Tokamak (MAST) to identify the non-perturbative and kinetic effects of thermal plasma. A specific TAE in MAST discharge 26887, with an on-axis NBI power of approximately 1.5 MW and plasma current around 800 kA, exhibited frequency chirping, and the tangential soft x-ray camera array resolved the radial mode structure peaked near |q|=1.5. Various excitation methods were used in the GTC linear simulations, illustrating this code's capability to realistically represent the mechanisms and behaviors of fast ion-driven TAEs in spherical tokamaks. The radial structures from these GK simulations closely match measurements and calculations performed using the NOVA ideal MHD code, though with the frequencies approximately 10 kHz lower, likely due to various kinetic and non-perturbative effects. The simulations measured the damping rates due to continuum damping, radiative damping, and ion Landau damping, revealing that ion Landau damping has the most significant contribution to the total damping rate of the TAE. A comparison of growth rates of TAEs excited by fast ion Maxwellian and slowing-down distributions shows that the TAEs excited by a fast ion anisotropic pitch distribution (as part of the slowing-down distributions) are more unstable compared to those excited by a Maxwellian distribution with an equivalent fast ion beta. This shows that the use of fast ion anisotropy alters the number of fast ions to be in shear Alfvén resonance, and hence, it can greatly affect the stability of TAEs. These tests can be performed with the GTC but impossible with ideal MHD simulations, highlighting the necessity of kinetic simulations such as the GTC for a precise prediction of the TAE stability.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2012

MOTION IN THE PHOTOGRAVITATIONAL ELLIPTIC RESTRICTED THREE-BODY PROBLEM UNDER AN OBLATE PRIMARY

This paper studies the motion of an infinitesimal mass around seven equilibrium points in the framework of the elliptic restricted three-body problem under the assumption that the primary of the system is a non-luminous, oblate spheroid and the secondary is luminous. A practical application of this case could be the study of the dynamical evolution of dust particles in orbits around a binary system with a dark degenerate primary and a secondary stellar companion. Conditional stability of the motion around the triangular points exists for 0 < {mu} < {mu}{sub c}, where {mu} is the mass ratio. The critical mass ratio value {mu}{sub c} depends on the combined effect of radiation pressure, oblateness, eccentricity, and the semimajor axis of the elliptic orbits; an increase in any of these parameters has destabilizing results on the orbits of the test particles. The overall effect is therefore that the size of the region of stability decreases when the value of these parameters increases. The collinear points and the out-of-plane equilibrium points are found to be unstable for any combination of the parameters considered here. Further, a numerical exploration computing the positions of the triangular points and the critical mass ratio of two binaries RX J0450.1-5856 and Nova Cen 1969 (Cen X-4) is given.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

SUB-CHANDRASEKHAR MASS MODELS FOR SUPERNOVAE

For carbon-oxygen white dwarfs accreting hydrogen or helium at rates in the range {approx}(1-10) x 10{sup -8} M{sub sun} yr{sup -1}, a variety of explosive outcomes is possible well before the star reaches the Chandrasekhar mass. These outcomes are surveyed for a range of white dwarf masses (0.7-1.1 M{sub sun}), accretion rates ((1-7) x 10{sup -8} M{sub sun} yr{sup -1}), and initial white dwarf temperatures (0.01 and 1 L{sub sun}). The results are particularly sensitive to the convection that goes on during the last few minutes before the explosion. Unless this convection maintains a shallow temperature gradient and unless the density is sufficiently high, the accreted helium does not detonate. Below a critical helium ignition density, which we estimate to be (5-10) x 10{sup 5} g cm{sup -3}, either helium novae or helium deflagrations result. The hydrodynamics, nucleosynthesis, light curves, and spectra of a representative sample of detonating and deflagrating models are explored. Some can be quite faint indeed, powered at peak for a few days by the decay of {sup 48}Cr and {sup 48}V. Only the hottest, most massive white dwarfs considered with the smallest helium layers, show reasonable agreement with the light curves and spectra of common Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia). For the other models, especially those involving lighter white dwarfs, the helium shell mass exceeds 0.05 M{sub sun} and the mass of the {sup 56}Ni that is synthesized exceeds 0.01 M{sub sun}. These explosions do not look like ordinary SNe Ia or any other frequently observed transient.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

O VI RECOMBINATION LINES IN ULTRAVIOLET AND VISIBLE SPECTRA OF RR TELESCOPII

Nineteen recombination lines of O VI are identified in ultraviolet and visible spectra of the symbiotic nova RR Telescopii at wavelengths between 1122 and 6203 A. Only three of the lines have previously been reported from astronomical spectra, and eight lines have never been reported from either astronomical or laboratory spectra. The lines represent transitions between levels with principal quantum numbers up to 13, and the strongest lines by flux occur at 1124.82, 2070.90, and 3434.66 A, corresponding to transitions 4-5, 5-6, and 6-7. As the lines are produced by recombination onto O VII, they potentially allow O VII emitting regions in astrophysical plasmas to be probed at ultraviolet and visible wavelengths that otherwise can only be studied at X-ray wavelengths.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

ON THE NATURE OF THE PROGENITOR OF THE Type Ia SN2011fe IN M101

The explosion of a Type Ia supernova, SN2011fe, in the nearby Pinwheel galaxy (M101 at 6.4 Mpc) provides an opportunity to study pre-explosion images and search for the progenitor, which should consist of a white dwarf (WD), possibly surrounded by an accretion disk, in orbit with another star. We report on our use of deep Chandra observations and Hubble Space Telescope observations to limit the luminosity and temperature of the pre-explosion WD. It is found that if the spectrum was a blackbody, then pre-SN WDs with steady nuclear burning of the highest possible temperatures and luminosities are excluded assuming moderate n{sub H} values, but values of kT between roughly 10 eV and 60 eV are permitted even if the WD was emitting at the Eddington luminosity. This allows the progenitor to be an accreting nuclear-burning WD with an expanded photosphere 4-100 times the WD itself, or a super-critically accreting WD blowing off an optically thick strong wind, or possibly a recurrent nova with luminosities an order of magnitude lower than Eddington. The observations are also consistent with a double degenerate scenario, or a spinning down WD that has been spun up by accretion from the donor.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

SPATIALLY RESOLVED SPECTROSCOPY OF THE GLOBULAR CLUSTER RZ 2109 AND THE NATURE OF ITS BLACK HOLE

We present optical Hubble Space Telescope/Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (HST/STIS) spectroscopy of RZ 2109, a globular cluster (GC) in the elliptical galaxy NGC 4472. This GC is notable for hosting an ultraluminous X-ray source as well as associated strong and broad [O III] {lambda}{lambda}4959, 5007 emission. We show that the HST/STIS spectroscopy spatially resolves the [O III] emission in RZ 2109. While we are unable to make a precise determination of the morphology of the emission-line nebula, the best-fitting models all require that the [O III] {lambda}5007 emission has a half-light radius in the range 3-7 pc. The extended nature of the [O III] {lambda}5007 emission is inconsistent with published models that invoke an intermediate-mass black hole origin. It is also inconsistent with the ionization of ejecta from a nova in the cluster. The spatial scale of the nebula could be produced via the photoionization of a strong wind driven from a stellar mass black hole accreting at roughly its Eddington rate.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

A LUMINOUS Be+WHITE DWARF SUPERSOFT SOURCE IN THE WING OF THE SMC: MAXI J0158-744

We present a multi-wavelength analysis of the very fast X-ray transient MAXI J0158-744, which was detected by MAXI/GSC on 2011 November 11. The subsequent exponential decline of the X-ray flux was followed with Swift observations, all of which revealed spectra with low temperatures ({approx}100 eV), indicating that MAXI J0158-744 is a new Supersoft Source (SSS). The Swift X-ray spectra near maximum show features around 0.8 keV that we interpret as possible absorption from O VIII and emission from O, Fe, and Ne lines. We obtained SAAO and ESO optical spectra of the counterpart early in the outburst and several weeks later. The early spectrum is dominated by strong Balmer and He I emission, together with weaker He II emission. The later spectrum reveals absorption features that indicate a B1/2IIIe spectral type, and all spectral features are at velocities consistent with the Small Magellanic Cloud. At this distance, it is a luminous SSS (>10{sup 37} erg s{sup -1}) but whose brief peak luminosity of >10{sup 39} erg s{sup -1} in the 2-4 keV band makes it the brightest SSS yet seen at ''hard'' X-rays. We propose that MAXI J0158-744 is a Be-WD binary, and the first example to possibly enter ULX territory. The brief hard X-ray flash could possibly be a result of the interaction of the ejected nova shell with the B star wind in which the white dwarf (WD) is embedded. This makes MAXI J0158-744 only the third Be/WD system in the Magellanic Clouds, but it is by far the most luminous. The properties of MAXI J0158-744 give weight to previous suggestions that SSS in nearby galaxies are associated with early-type stellar systems.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

WIND-ACCRETION DISKS IN WIDE BINARIES, SECOND-GENERATION PROTOPLANETARY DISKS, AND ACCRETION ONTO WHITE DWARFS

Mass transfer from an evolved donor star to its binary companion is a standard feature of stellar evolution in binaries. In wide binaries, the companion star captures some of the mass ejected in a wind by the primary star. The captured material forms an accretion disk. Here, we study the evolution of wind-accretion disks, using a numerical approach which allows us to follow the long-term evolution. For a broad range of initial conditions, we derive the radial density and temperature profiles of the disk. In most cases, wind accretion leads to long-lived stable disks over the lifetime of the asymptotic giant branch donor star. The disks have masses of a few times 10{sup -5}-10{sup -3} M {sub Sun }, with surface density and temperature profiles that follow broken power laws. The total mass in the disk scales approximately linearly with the viscosity parameter used. Roughly, 50%-80% of the mass falling into the disk accretes onto the central star; the rest flows out through the outer edge of the disk into the stellar wind of the primary. For systems with large accretion rates, the secondary accretes as much as 0.1 M {sub Sun }. When the secondary is a white dwarf, accretion naturally leads to nova and supernova eruptions. For all types of secondary star, the surface density and temperature profiles of massive disks resemble structures observed in protoplanetary disks, suggesting that coordinated observational programs might improve our understanding of uncertain disk physics.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

SUPPRESSION OF DIELECTRONIC RECOMBINATION DUE TO FINITE DENSITY EFFECTS

We have developed a general model for determining density-dependent effective dielectronic recombination (DR) rate coefficients in order to explore finite-density effects on the ionization balance of plasmas. Our model consists of multiplying by a suppression factor those highly-accurate total zero-density DR rate coefficients which have been produced from state-of-the-art theoretical calculations and which have been benchmarked by experiment. The suppression factor is based upon earlier detailed collision-radiative calculations which were made for a wide range of ions at various densities and temperatures, but used a simplified treatment of DR. A general suppression formula is then developed as a function of isoelectronic sequence, charge, density, and temperature. These density-dependent effective DR rate coefficients are then used in the plasma simulation code Cloudy to compute ionization balance curves for both collisionally ionized and photoionized plasmas at very low (n{sub e} = 1 cm{sup -3}) and finite (n{sub e} = 10{sup 10} cm{sup -3}) densities. We find that the denser case is significantly more ionized due to suppression of DR, warranting further studies of density effects on DR by detailed collisional-radiative calculations which utilize state-of-the-art partial DR rate coefficients. This is expected to impact the predictions of the ionization balance in denser cosmic gases such as those found in nova and supernova shells, accretion disks, and the broad emission line regions in active galactic nuclei.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

LATE-TIME SPECTRAL OBSERVATIONS OF THE STRONGLY INTERACTING TYPE Ia SUPERNOVA PTF11kx

PTF11kx was a Type Ia supernova (SN Ia) that showed time-variable absorption features, including saturated Ca II H and K lines that weakened and eventually went into emission. The strength of the emission component of H{alpha} gradually increased, implying that the SN was undergoing significant interaction with its circumstellar medium (CSM). These features, and many others, were blueshifted slightly and showed a P-Cygni profile, likely indicating that the CSM was directly related to, and probably previously ejected by, the progenitor system itself. These and other observations led Dilday et al. to conclude that PTF11kx came from a symbiotic nova progenitor like RS Oph. In this work we extend the spectral coverage of PTF11kx to 124-680 rest-frame days past maximum brightness. The late-time spectra of PTF11kx are dominated by H{alpha} emission (with widths of full width at half-maximum intensity Almost-Equal-To 2000 km s{sup -1}), strong Ca II emission features ({approx}10,000 km s{sup -1} wide), and a blue 'quasi-continuum' due to many overlapping narrow lines of Fe II. Emission from oxygen, He I, and Balmer lines higher than H{alpha} is weak or completely absent at all epochs, leading to large observed H{alpha}/H{beta} intensity ratios. The H{alpha} emission appears to increase in strength with time for {approx}1 yr, but it subsequently decreases significantly along with the Ca II emission. Our latest spectrum also indicates the possibility of newly formed dust in the system as evidenced by a slight decrease in the red wing of H{alpha}. During the same epochs, multiple narrow emission features from the CSM temporally vary in strength. The weakening of the H{alpha} and Ca II emission at late times is possible evidence that the SN ejecta have overtaken the majority of the CSM and agrees with models of other strongly interacting SNe Ia. The varying narrow emission features, on the other hand, may indicate that the CSM is clumpy or consists of multiple thin shells.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2014

No X-rays from the very nearby type Ia SN 2014J: Constraints on its environment

Deep X-ray observations of the post-explosion environment around the very nearby Type Ia SN 2014J (d{sub L} = 3.5 Mpc) reveal no X-ray emission down to a luminosity L{sub x} < 7 × 10{sup 36} erg s{sup –1} (0.3-10 keV) at δt ∼ 20 days after the explosion. We interpret this limit in the context of inverse Compton emission from upscattered optical photons by the supernova shock and constrain the pre-explosion mass-loss rate of the stellar progenitor system to be M-dot <10{sup −9} M{sub ⊙} yr{sup −1} (for wind velocity v{sub w} = 100 km s{sup –1}). Alternatively, the SN shock might be expanding into a uniform medium with density n{sub CSM} < 3 cm{sup –3}. These results rule out single-degenerate (SD) systems with steady mass loss until the terminal explosion and constrain the fraction of transferred material lost at the outer Lagrangian point to be ≤1%. The allowed progenitors are (1) white dwarf-white dwarf progenitors, (2) SD systems with unstable hydrogen burning experiencing recurrent nova eruptions with recurrence time t < 300 yr, and (3) stars where the mass loss ceases before the explosion.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗