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NASA NTRS1997

Wavelet Analysis of Satellite Images for Coastal Watch

The two-dimensional wavelet transform is a very efficient bandpass filter, which can be used to separate various scales of processes and show their relative phase/location. In this paper, algorithms and techniques for automated detection and tracking of mesoscale features from satellite imagery employing wavelet analysis are developed. The wavelet transform has been applied to satellite images, such as those from synthetic aperture radar (SAR), advanced very-high-resolution radiometer (AVHRR), and coastal zone color scanner (CZCS) for feature extraction. The evolution of mesoscale features such as oil slicks, fronts, eddies, and ship wakes can be tracked by the wavelet analysis using satellite data from repeating paths. Several examples of the wavelet analysis applied to various satellite Images demonstrate the feasibility of this technique for coastal monitoring.

Liu, Antony K.↗

NASA NTRS2000

Effect of Combined Spaceborne Microwave and Continuous Lightning Measurements on Precipitation Forecasts of the 1998 Ground-Hog Day Storm

We evaluated the impact of several newly available sources of meteorological data on mesoscale model forecasts of precipitation produced by the extra-tropical cyclone that struck Florida on February 2, 1998. Precipitation distributions of convective rainfall events were derived from Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) and Multi-Channel Passive Microwave Sensor (TMI) microwave radiometric data by means of the Goddard PROFiling (GPROF) algorithm. Continuous lightning distributions were obtained from sferics measurements obtained from a network of VLF radio receivers. Histograms of coincident sferics frequency distributions were matched to those of precipitation to derive bogus convective rainfall rates from the continuously available sferics measurements. SSM/I and TMI microwave data were used to derive Integrated Precipitable Water (IPW) distributions. The TMI also provided sea surface temperatures (SSTS) of the Loop Current and Gulf Stream with improved structural detail. A series of experiments assimilated IPW and latent heating from the bogus convective rainfall for six-hours in the MM5 mesoscale forecast model to produce nine-hour forecasts of all rainfall as well as other weather parameters. Although continuously assimilating latent heating only slightly improved the surface pressure distribution forecast, it significantly improved the precipitation forecasts. Correctly locating convective rainfall was found critical for assimilating latent heating in the forecast model, but measurement of the rainfall intensity proved to be less important. The improved SSTs also had a positive impact on rainfall forecasts for this case. Assimilating bogus rainfall in the model produced nine-hour forecasts of radar reflectivity distributions that agreed well with coincident observations from the TRMM spaceborne precipitation radar, ground based radar and spaceborne microwave measurements.

Weinman, James A.↗

NASA NTRS2000

ER-2 Doppler Radar (EDOP) Investigations of the Eyewall of Hurricane Bonnie CAMEX-3

A persistent, mesoscale region of intense eyewall convection contained within Hurricane Bonnie on 23 August 1998 is examined from multiple observations synthesized from the NASA ER-2 and DC-8 aircraft. The intense convection occurred late in the day as Bonnie was attaining its minimum central pressure and during a stage when the inner core featured a markedly asymmetric structure. The main purpose of this paper is to describe the internal structure of a convective burst and its relationship to the warm core using a synthesis of high-resolution satellite, aircraft radar, and in situ data. An exceptionally vigorous eyewall tower penetrating to nearly 18 km is described. A second intense eyewall tower, adjacent to the eye, is shown to be associated with a mesoscale subsiding current of air that extends horizontally nearly 20 km into the eye interior. The subsidence occupies a substantial depth within the eye and appears to be a much larger scale feature than the convectively-induced, symmetric overturning which commonly occurs on the upper-level flanks of convective towers in other tropical environments.

Heymsfield, G. M.↗

NASA NTRS2001

Atmospheric Constraints on Landing Site Selection

The Martian atmosphere is a significant part of the environment that the Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) will encounter. As such, it imposes important constraints on where the rovers can and cannot land. Unfortunately, as there are no meteorological instruments on the rovers, there is little atmospheric science that can be accomplished, and no scientific preference for landing sites. The atmosphere constrains landing site selection in two main areas, the entry descent and landing (EDL) process and the survivability of the rovers on the surface. EDL is influenced by the density profile and boundary layer winds (up to altitudes of 5 to 10 km). Surface survivability involves atmospheric dust, temperatures and winds. During EDL, the atmosphere is used to slow the lander down, both ballistically and on the parachute. This limits the maximum elevation of the landing site to -1.3 km below the MOLA reference aeroid. The landers need to encounter a sufficiently dense atmosphere to be able to stop, and the deeper the landing site, the more column integrated atmosphere the lander can pass through before reaching the surface. The current limit was determined both by a desire to be able to reach the hematite region and by a set of atmosphere models we developed for EDL simulations. These are based on Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) atmospheric profile measurements, Ames Mars General Circulation Model (MGCM) results, and the 1-D Ames GCM radiative/convective model by J. Murphy. The latter is used for the near surface diurnal cycle. The current version of our model encompasses representative latitude bands, but we intend to make specific models for the final candidate landing sites to insure that they fall within the general envelope. The second constraint imposed on potential landing sites through the EDL process is the near surface wind. The wind in the lower approximately 5 km determines the horizontal velocity that the landers have when they land. Due to the mechanics of the landing process, the total velocity (including both the horizontal and vertical components) determines whether or not the landers are successful. Unfortunately, the landing system has no easy way to nullify any horizontal velocity imparted by the wind, so the landing sites selected need to have as little wind as possible. In addition to the mean wind velocity, the landing system is sensitive to vertical wind shear in the lowest kilometer or so. Wind shear can deflect the retro rockets (RADs) from their nominal vertical orientation producing unwanted horizontal spacecraft velocities. Both mean velocity and wind shear are dominated by the the local topography and other surface properties (in particular albedo and thermal inertia which control the surface temperature). This is seen even in simplified 2-D mesoscale models. The effects in a fully 3-D model are expected to he even more topographically dependent. In particular there is potential for wind channeling in canyons and other terrain features. Boundary layer winds and wind shear are currently being modeled based on terrestrial data and boundary layer scaling laws modified for Martian conditions. We hope to supplement this with mesoscale model results (from several sources) once the number of landing sites is reduced to a manageable number.

Kass, David M.↗

NASA NTRS2001

Numerical Simulations of Precipitation Processes, Microphysics, and Microwave Radiative Properties of flood Producing Storms in Mediterranean & Adriatic Basins

A comprehensive understanding of the meteorological and microphysical nature of Mediterranean storms requires a combination of in situ data analysis, radar data analysis, and satellite data analysis, effectively integrated with numerical modeling studies at various scales. An important aspect of understanding microphysical controls of severe storms, is first understanding the meteorological controls under which a storm has evolved, and then using that information to help characterize the dominant microphysical processes. For hazardous Mediterranean storms, highlighted by the October 5-6, 1998 Friuli flood event in northern Italy, a comprehensive microphysical interpretation requires an understanding of the multiple phases of storm evolution. This involves intense convective development, Sratiform decay, orographic lifting, and sloped frontal lifting processes, as well as the associated vertical motions and thermodynamical instabilities governing physical processes that effect details of the size distributions and fall rates of the various types of hydrometeors found within the storm environment. This talk overviews the microphysical elements of a severe Mediterranean storm in such a context, investigated with the aid of TRMM satellite and other remote sensing measurements, but guided by a nonhydrostatic mesoscale model simulation of the Friuli flood event. The data analysis for this paper was conducted by my research groups at the Global Hydrology and Climate Center in Huntsville, AL and Florida State University in Tallahassee, and in collaboration with Dr. Alberto Mugnai's research group at the Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Rome. The numerical modeling was conducted by Professor Oreg Tripoli and Ms. Giulia Panegrossi at the University of Wisconsin in Madison, using Professor Tripoli's nonhydrostatic modeling system (NMS). This is a scalable, fully nested mesoscale model capable of resolving nonhydrostatic circulations from regional scale down to cloud scale and below.

Smith, Eric A.↗

NASA NTRS2001

A Study of the Role of Clouds in the Relationship Between Land Use/Land Cover and the Climate and Air Quality of the Atlanta Area

The goal of Project ATLANTA is to derive a better scientific understanding of how land cover changes associated with urbanization affect climate and air quality. In this project the role that clouds play in this relationship was studied. Through GOES satellite observations and RAMS modeling of the Atlanta area, we found that in Atlanta (1) clouds are more frequent than in the surrounding rural areas; (2) clouds cool the surface by shading and thus tend to counteract the warming effect of urbanization; (3) clouds reflect sunlight, which might other wise be used to produce ozone; and (4) clouds decrease biogenic emission of ozone precursors, and they probably decrease ozone concentration. We also found that mesoscale modeling of clouds, especially of small, summertime clouds, needs to be improved and that coupled mesoscale and air quality models are needed to completely understand the mediating role that clouds play in the relationship between land use/land cover change and the climate and air quality of Atlanta. It is strongly recommended that more cities be studied to strengthen and extend these results.

Kidder, Stanley Q.↗

NASA NTRS2001

TRMM Validation: Integration of TRMM Satellite and Ground-Validation Data to Determine Tropical Heating

Steiner and Houze showed from ground validation data that the Tropical Rain Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite Precipitation Radar's (PR's) twice daily only sampling should lead to an uncertainty of approximately 20% in rain estimates. They further showed that the uncertainties are smallest at the 5-7.5 km level. Schumacher and Houze used Kwajalein ground validation data to show that the TRMM PR misses only 2.3% of the near surface rainfall but does not see 46% of the area where rain occurs, because of the 17 dBZ PR reflectivity threshold. Houze discusses how the TRMM data extend earlier tropical convective studies to global coverage of the vertical profile of latent heating via the TRMM PR''s ability to distinguish and globally map convective and stratiform precipitation. Process studies carried out under this TRMM grant Yuter and Houze and Yuter et al. studied ship-based radar observations in the tropical eastern Pacific ITCZ. The eastern Pacific precipitation process is different from the western Pacific (the COARE area); rain is heavier but the clouds are not as deep. These process differences may affect the ability to remotely sense precipitation accurately in the two regions. Satellite microwave data were able to detect the precipitation as long as the rain areas exceeded 10 km in dimension. However, the microwave algorithms had difficulty distinguishing light and heavy rain. Satellite IR algorithms only partially detected the rain because the tops of the smaller and more short-lived rain clouds were sometimes not cold enough for the IR algorithms to detect them. Houze et al. focused on the west Pacific precipitating mesoscale convective systems and showed how their precipitation and internal dynamics vary in relation to the slowly varying large-scale heating-driven circulation, which has a structure described by a combination of Kelvin and Rossby wave response to the near-equatorial convective heating constituted by the mesoscale convective systems. Ship and aircraft radar data were used in this study.

Houze, Robert A., Jr.↗

NASA NTRS2001

Routine High-Resolution Forecasts/Analyses for the Pacific Disaster Center: User Manual

Enclosed herein is our HWCMO user manual. This manual constitutes the final report for our NASA/PDC grant, NASA NAG5-8730, "Routine High Resolution Forecasts/Analysis for the Pacific Disaster Center". Since the beginning of the grant, we have routinely provided experimental high resolution forecasts from the RSM/MSM for the Hawaii Islands, while working to upgrade the system to include: (1) a more robust input of NCEP analyses directly from NCEP; (2) higher vertical resolution, with increased forecast accuracy; (3) faster delivery of forecast products and extension of initial 1-day forecasts to 2 days; (4) augmentation of our basic meteorological and simplified fireweather forecasts to firedanger and drought forecasts; (5) additional meteorological forecasts with an alternate mesoscale model (MM5); and (6) the feasibility of using our modeling system to work in higher-resolution domains and other regions. In this user manual, we provide a general overview of the operational system and the mesoscale models as well as more detailed descriptions of the models. A detailed description of daily operations and a cost analysis is also provided. Evaluations of the models are included although it should be noted that model evaluation is a continuing process and as potential problems are identified, these can be used as the basis for making model improvements. Finally, we include our previously submitted answers to particular PDC questions (Appendix V). All of our initially proposed objectives have basically been met. In fact, a number of useful applications (VOG, air pollution transport) are already utilizing our experimental output and we believe there are a number of other applications that could make use of our routine forecast/analysis products. Still, work still remains to be done to further develop this experimental weather, climate, fire danger and drought prediction system. In short, we would like to be a part of a future PDC team, if at all possible, to further develop and apply the system for the Hawaiian and other Pacific Islands as well as the entire Pacific Basin.

Roads, John↗

NASA NTRS2001

Numerical Study of the Role of Shallow Convection in Moisture Transport and Climate

The objective of this investigation was to study the role of shallow convection on the regional water cycle of the Mississippi and Little Washita Basins of the Southern Great Plains (SGP) using a 3-D mesoscale model, the PSU/NCAR MM5. The underlying premise of the project was that current modeling of regional-scale climate and moisture cycles over the continents is deficient without adequate treatment of shallow convection. At the beginning of the study, it was hypothesized that an improved treatment of the regional water cycle can be achieved by using a 3-D mesoscale numerical model having high-quality parameterizations for the key physical processes controlling the water cycle. These included a detailed land-surface parameterization (the Parameterization for Land-Atmosphere-Cloud Exchange (PLACE) sub-model of Wetzel and Boone), an advanced boundary-layer parameterization (the 1.5-order turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) predictive scheme of Shafran et al.), and a more complete shallow convection parameterization (the hybrid-closure scheme of Deng et al.) than are available in most current models. PLACE is a product of researchers working at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, MD. The TKE and shallow-convection schemes are the result of model development at Penn State. The long-range goal is to develop an integrated suite of physical sub-models that can be used for regional and perhaps global climate studies of the water budget. Therefore, the work plan focused on integrating, improving, and testing these parameterizations in the MM5 and applying them to study water-cycle processes over the SGP. These schemes have been tested extensively through the course of this study and the latter two have been improved significantly as a consequence.

Seaman, Nelson L.↗

NASA NTRS2000

Development and Testing of Coupled Land-surface, PBL and Shallow/Deep Convective Parameterizations within the MM5

The objective of this investigation was to study the role of shallow convection on the regional water cycle of the Mississippi and Little Washita Basins using a 3-D mesoscale model, the PSUINCAR MM5. The underlying premise of the project was that current modeling of regional-scale climate and moisture cycles over the continents is deficient without adequate treatment of shallow convection. It was hypothesized that an improved treatment of the regional water cycle can be achieved by using a 3-D mesoscale numerical model having a detailed land-surface parameterization, an advanced boundary-layer parameterization, and a more complete shallow convection parameterization than are available in most current models. The methodology was based on the application in the MM5 of new or recently improved parameterizations covering these three physical processes. Therefore, the work plan focused on integrating, improving, and testing these parameterizations in the MM5 and applying them to study water-cycle processes over the Southern Great Plains (SGP): (1) the Parameterization for Land-Atmosphere-Cloud Exchange (PLACE) described by Wetzel and Boone; (2) the 1.5-order turbulent kinetic energy (TKE)-predicting scheme of Shafran et al.; and (3) the hybrid-closure sub-grid shallow convection parameterization of Deng. Each of these schemes has been tested extensively through this study and the latter two have been improved significantly to extend their capabilities.

Stauffer, David R.↗

NASA NTRS2001

Microphysics, Meteorology, Microwave and Modeling of Mediterranean Storms: The M(sup 5) Problem

Comprehensive understanding of the microphysical nature of Mediterranean storms requires a combination of in situ meteorological data analysis and radar-passive microwave data analysis, effectively integrated with numerical modeling studies at various scales, particularly from synoptic scale down to mesoscale. The microphysical properties of and their controls on severe storms are intrinsically related to meteorological processes under which storms have evolved, processes which eventually select and control the dominant microphysical properties themselves. Insofar as hazardous Mediterranean storms, highlighted by the September 25-28/1992 Genova flood event, the October 5-7/1998 Friuli flood event, and the October 13-15/2000 Piemonte flood event (all taking place in northern Italy), developing a comprehensive microphysical interpretation requires an understanding of the multiple phases of storm evolution and the heterogeneous nature of precipitation fields within the storm domains. This involves convective development, stratiform transition and decay, orographic lifting, and sloped frontal lifting proc esses. This also involves vertical motions and thermodynamical instabilities governing physical processes that determine details of the liquid/ice water contents, size distributions, and fall rates of the various modes of hydrometeors found within the storm environments. This paper presents detailed 4-dimensional analyses of the microphysical elements of the three severe Mediterranean storms identified above, investigated with the aid of SSM/I and TRMM satellite measurements (and other remote sensing measurements). The analyses are guided by nonhydrostatic mesoscale model simulations at high resolution of the intense rain producing portions of the storm environments. The results emphasize how meteorological controls taking place at the large scale, coupled with localized terrain controls, ultimately determine the most salient features of the bulk microphysical properties of the storms. These results have bearing on precipitation remote sensing from space, and the role of modeling in designing precipitation retrieval algorithms.

Smith, Eric A.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Regional Data Assimilation Using a Stretched-Grid Approach and Ensemble Calculations

The global variable resolution stretched grid (SG) version of the Goddard Earth Observing System (GEOS) Data Assimilation System (DAS) incorporating the GEOS SG-GCM (Fox-Rabinovitz 2000, Fox-Rabinovitz et al. 2001a,b), has been developed and tested as an efficient tool for producing regional analyses and diagnostics with enhanced mesoscale resolution. The major area of interest with enhanced regional resolution used in different SG-DAS experiments includes a rectangle over the U.S. with 50 or 60 km horizontal resolution. The analyses and diagnostics are produced for all mandatory levels from the surface to 0.2 hPa. The assimilated regional mesoscale products are consistent with global scale circulation characteristics due to using the SG-approach. Both the stretched grid and basic uniform grid DASs use the same amount of global grid-points and are compared in terms of regional product quality.

Fox-Rabinovitz, M. S.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Improved Estimates of Temporally Coherent Internal Tides and Energy Fluxes from Satellite Altimetry

Satellite altimetry has opened a surprising new avenue to observing internal tides in the open ocean. The tidal surface signatures are very small, a few cm at most, but in many areas they are robust, owing to averaging over many years. By employing a simplified two dimensional wave fitting to the surface elevations in combination with climatological hydrography to define the relation between the surface height and the current and pressure at depth, we may obtain rough estimates of internal tide energy fluxes. Initial results near Hawaii with Topex/Poseidon (T/P) data show good agreement with detailed 3D (three dimensional) numerical models, but the altimeter picture is somewhat blurred owing to the widely spaced T/P tracks. The resolution may be enhanced somewhat by using data from the ERS-1 (ESA (European Space Agency) Remote Sensing) and ERS-2 satellite altimeters. The ERS satellite tracks are much more closely spaced (0.72 deg longitude vs. 2.83 deg for T/P), but the tidal estimates are less accurate than those for T/P. All altimeter estimates are also severely affected by noise in regions of high mesoscale variability, and we have obtained some success in reducing this contamination by employing a prior correction for mesoscale variability based on ten day detailed sea surface height maps developed by Le Traon and colleagues. These improvements allow us to more clearly define the internal tide surface field and the corresponding energy fluxes. Results from throughout the global ocean will be presented.

Ray, Richard D.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Investigation of Aerodynamic and Radiometric Land Surface Temperatures

The surface temperature, T(sub s), of a land surface measured by a radiometer, T(sub s,r), and the temperature "felt" by the air, T(sub aero), often differ significantly and are difficult if not impossible to define rigorously. However, recent studies conducted by the principal investigators with several land surface models suggest that this problem can be largely resolved. The main goal of this project was to use model-based and empirical studies to improve understanding and reconcile the difference between T(sub s,r) and T(sub aero), while maintaining consistency within the models and with theory and data. The results from this effort have contributed progress towards the effective use of remotely sensed surface temperature measurements taken from an arbitrary view angle over a partial canopy cover for producing high quality sensible and latent heat flux estimates. In addition, we have developed parameterizations that are designed to improve the representation of the roughness length for heat in climate and mesoscale models. This not only provides improved representation of surface energy balance in such models, but should also facilitate the use of surface temperature measurements for validating or updating the surface temperature produced by SVATs (soil-vegetation-atmosphere schemes) in climate or mesoscale models.

Friedl, Mark↗

NASA NTRS2003

Sensitivity of Precipitation Processes to Microphysics and Resolution in a Cloud-Resolving Model

The Goddard Cumulus Ensemble (GCE) model is used to examine the impact of various microphysical schemes, and vertical and horizontal resolution on the development, intensity and rainfall associated with mesoscale convective systems, idealized hurricanes and an ensemble of clouds. The model variables include horizontal and vertical velocities, potential temperature, perturbation pressure, turbulent kinetic energy, and mixing ratios of all water phases (vapor, liquid, and ice). The major characteristics of the GCE model are the explicit representation of warm rain and ice microphysical processes, and their complex interactions with solar and infrared radiative transfer processes, and with surface processes. For idealized hurricane, an axisymmetric version of the GCE model was developed and used successfully to simulate the tropical cyclogenesis process using both a Rankin vortex and saturated air within a specified radius as initial conditions. For mesoscale convective systems, the 3-D version of the GCE model was used to simulate squall lines that developed in the western Pacific, South China Sea, eastern Atlantic, South America and central U.S. For the cloud ensemble, the GCE model was integrated for several days in order to have good sampling of cloud statistics. In this paper, the sensitivities of hurricane intensity to various microphysical processes and model grid resolution will be examined. This will be mainly achieved by performing sensitivity tests using various horizontal (from 1- to 5-kilometers) and vertical resolutions (from 20- to 200-meters in the lower troposphere to 200- to 500-m in the middle and upper troposphere). Sensitivity tests using various microphysical schemes (warm rain only, and three ice with either graupel or hail) will also be performed. The PBL and diurnal variation of precipitation processes will also be evaluated. The budgets will be calculated for different regions (i.e., convective and stratiform regions).

Tao, Wei-Kao↗

NASA NTRS2003

Sensitivity of Precipitation Processes to Microphysics and Resolution in a Cloud-resolving Model

Tao, Wei-Kuo↗

NASA NTRS2003

Sensitivity of Precipitation Processes to Microphysics and Resolution in a Cloud-Resolving Model

The Goddard Cumulus Ensemble (GCE) model is used to examine the impact of various microphysical schemes, and vertical and horizontal resolution on the development, intensity and rainfall associated with mesoscale convective systems, idealized hurricanes and an ensemble of clouds. The model variables include horizontal and vertical velocities, potential temperature, perturbation pressure, turbulent kinetic energy, and mixing ratios of all water phases (vapor, liquid, and ice). The major characteristics of the GCE model are the explicit representation of warm rain and ice microphysical processes, and their complex interactions with solar and infrared radiative transfer processes, and with surface processes. For idealized hurricane, an axisymmetric version of the GCE model was developed and used successfully to simulate the tropical cyclogenesis process using both a Rankin vortex and saturated air within a specified radius as initial conditions. For mesoscale convective systems, the 3-D version of the GCE model was used to simulate squall lines that developed in the western Pacific, eastern Atlantic and central US. For the cloud ensemble, the GCE model was integrated for several days in order to have good sampling of cloud statistics. In this paper, the sensitivities of hurricane intensity to various microphysical processes and model grid resolution will be examined.

Tao, Wei-Kuo↗

NASA NTRS2003

Sensitivity of Precipitation Processes to Microphysics and Resolution in a Cloud Resolving Model

The Goddard Cumulus Ensemble (GCE) model examines the impact of various microphysical schemes, and vertical and horizontal resolution in the development, intensity and rainfall associated with mesoscale convective systems, idealized hurricanes and an ensemble of clouds. The model variables include horizontal and vertical velocities, potential temperature, perturbation pressure, turbulent kinetic energy, and mixing rations of all water phases (vapor, liquid and ice). The major characteristics of the GCE model are the explicit representation of warm rain and ice microphysical processes, and their complex interactions with solar and infrared radiative transfer processes and with surface processes. For idealized hurricanes, an axisymmetric version of the GCE model was developed and used to simulate the tropical cyclogenesis process using both a Rankin vortex and saturated air within a specified radius as initial conditions. For mesoscale convective systems, the 3-D version of the GCE model was use to simulate squall lines that developed in the western Pacific, South China Sea, eastern Atlantic, South America and central U.S. FOr the cloud ensemble, the GCE model was integrated for several days in order to have a good sampling of cloud statistics. In this paper, the sensitivities of hurricane intensity to various microphysical processes and model grid resolutio will be examined. This will be mainly achieved by performing sensitivity tests using various horizontal (from 1-to 5-km) and vertical resolutions (from 20- to 200-m in the lower troposphere to 200- to 500m in the middle and upper troposphere). Sensitivity test using various microphysical schemes (warm rain only, and three ice with either graupel or hail) will also be performed. The thermodynamic and water budget associated with various types of precipitation systems will also be evaluated. The budgets will be calculated for different regions (i.e., convective and stratiform regions).

Tao, Wei-Kuo↗