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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 1,207 records · Page 67
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

CD206 + Trem2 + macrophage accumulation in the murine knee joint after injury is associated with protection against post-traumatic osteoarthritis in MRL/MpJ mice

Post-traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA) is a painful joint disease characterized by the degradation of bone, cartilage, and other connective tissues in the joint. PTOA is initiated by trauma to joint-stabilizing tissues, such as the anterior cruciate ligament, medial meniscus, or by intra-articular fractures. In humans, ~50% of joint injuries progress to PTOA, while the rest spontaneously resolve. To better understand molecular programs contributing to PTOA development or resolution, we examined injury-induced fluctuations in immune cell populations and transcriptional shifts by single-cell RNA sequencing of synovial joints in PTOA-susceptible C57BL/6J (B6) and PTOA-resistant MRL/MpJ (MRL) mice. We identified significant differences in monocyte and macrophage subpopulations between MRL and B6 joints. A potent myeloid-driven anti-inflammatory response was observed in MRL injured joints that significantly contrasted the pro-inflammatory signaling seen in B6 joints. Multiple CD206 + macrophage populations classically described as M2 were found enriched in MRL injured joints. These CD206 + macrophages also robustly expressed Trem2 , a receptor involved in inflammation and myeloid cell activation. These data suggest that the PTOA resistant MRL mouse strain displays an enhanced capacity of clearing debris and apoptotic cells induced by inflammation after injury due to an increase in activated M2 macrophages within the synovial tissue and joint space.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS1997

Free Radicals Generated by Ionizing Radiation Signal Nuclear Translocation of p53

The p53 tumor suppressor is a transcription factor that regulates several pathways, which function collectively to maintain the integrity of the genome. Nuclear localization is critical for wild-type function. However, the signals that regulate subcellular localization of p53 have not been identified. Here, we examine the effect of ionizing radiation on the subcellular localization of p53 in two cell lines in which p63 is normally sequestered in the cytoplasm and found that ionizing radiation caused a biphasic translocation response. p53 entered the nucleus 1-2 hours postirradiation (early response), subsequently emerged from the nucleus, and then again entered the nucleus 12-24 hours after the cells had been irradiated (delayed response). These changes in subcellular localization could be completely blocked by the free radical scavenger, WR1065. By comparison, two DNA-damaging agents that do not generate free radicals, mitomycin C and doxorubicin, caused translocation only after 12-24 h of exposure to the drugs, and this effect could not be inhibited by WR1065. Hence, although all three DNA-damaging agents induced relocalization of p53 to the nucleus, only the translocation caused by radiation was sensitive to free radical scavenging. We suggest that the free radicals generated by ionizing radiation can signal p53 translocation to the nucleus.

Martinez, J. D.↗
DOE OSTI2021

A data-independent acquisition-based global phosphoproteomics system enables deep profiling

Phosphoproteomics can provide insights into cellular signaling dynamics. To achieve deep and robust quantitative phosphoproteomics profiling for minute amounts of sample, we here develop a global phosphoproteomics strategy based on data-independent acquisition (DIA) mass spectrometry and hybrid spectral libraries derived from data-dependent acquisition (DDA) and DIA data. Benchmarking the method using 166 synthetic phosphopeptides shows high sensitivity (<0.1 ng), accurate site localization and reproducible quantification (~5% median coefficient of variation). As a proof-of-concept, we use lung cancer cell lines and patient-derived tissue to construct a hybrid phosphoproteome spectral library covering 159,524 phosphopeptides (88,107 phosphosites). Based on this library, our single-shot streamlined DIA workflow quantifies 36,350 phosphosites (19,755 class 1) in cell line samples within two hours. Application to drug-resistant cells and patient-derived lung cancer tissues delineates site-specific phosphorylation events associated with resistance and tumor progression, showing that our workflow enables the characterization of phosphorylation signaling with deep coverage, high sensitivity and low between-run missing values.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

PDGF-BB-mediated activation of CREB in vascular smooth muscle cells alters cell cycling via Rb, FoxO1 and p27kip1

The vascular response to injury leads to the secretion of several factors, including platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF-BB). PDGF-BB stimulates smooth muscle cell (SMC) conversion to the synthetic phenotype, thereby enhancing proliferation and migration, and contributing to neointimal hyperplasia. Likewise, the cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) transcription factor has been shown to mediate SMC proliferation in response to various mitogens. We therefore investigated the contribution of CREB to PDGF-BB-dependent proliferation of SMCs with the intention of identifying signaling pathways involved both up and downstream of CREB activation.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS1998

Co- and/or post-translational modifications are critical for TCH4 XET activity

TCH4 encodes a xyloglucan endotransglycosylase (XET) of Arabidopsis thaliana. XETs endolytically cleave and religate xyloglucan polymers; xyloglucan is one of the primary structural components of the plant cell wall. Therefore, XET function may affect cell shape and plant morphogenesis. To gain insight into the biochemical function of TCH4, we defined structural requirements for optimal XET activity. Recombinant baculoviruses were designed to produce distinct forms of TCH4. TCH4 protein engineered to be synthesized in the cytosol and thus lack normal co- and post-translational modifications is virtually inactive. TCH4 proteins, with and without a polyhistidine tag, that harbor an intact N-terminus are directed to the secretory pathway. Thus, as predicted, the N-terminal region of TCH4 functions as a signal peptide. TCH4 is shown to have at least one disulfide bond as monitored by a mobility shift in SDS-PAGE in the presence of dithiothreitol (DTT). This disulfide bond(s) is essential for full XET activity. TCH4 is glycosylated in vivo; glycosidases that remove N-linked glycosylation eliminated 98% of the XET activity. Thus, co- and/or post-translational modifications are critical for optimal TCH4 XET activity. Furthermore, using site-specific mutagenesis, we demonstrated that the first glutamate residue of the conserved DEIDFEFL motif (E97) is essential for activity. A change to glutamine at this position resulted in an inactive protein; a change to aspartic acid caused protein mislocalization. These data support the hypothesis that, in analogy to Bacillus beta-glucanases, this region may be the active site of XET enzymes.

NASA Discipline Cell Biology↗
DOE OSTI2021

Formin nanoclustering-mediated actin assembly during plant flagellin and DSF signaling

Plants respond to bacterial infection acutely with actin remodeling during plant immune responses. The mechanisms by which bacterial virulence factors (VFs) modulate plant actin polymerization remain enigmatic. Here, we show that plant-type-I formin serves as the molecular sensor for actin remodeling in response to two bacterial VFs: Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc) diffusible signal factor (DSF), and pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) flagellin in pattern-triggered immunity (PTI). Both VFs regulate actin assembly by tuning the clustering and nucleation activity of formin on the plasma membrane (PM) at the nano-sized scale. By being integrated within the cell-wall-PM-actin cytoskeleton (CW-PM-AC) continuum, the dynamic behavior and function of formins are highly dependent on each scaffold layer’s composition within the CW-PM-AC continuum during both DSF and PTI signaling. Our results reveal a central mechanism for rapid actin remodeling during plant-bacteria interactions, in which bacterial signaling molecules fine tune plant formin nanoclustering in a host mechanical-structure-dependent manner.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS1999

Gravitational Effects on Signal Transduction

The purpose of this study was to investigate in ground-based experiments, the effect of microgravity on in vitro erythroid differentiation triggered by the hematopoietic growth factor erythropoietin (Epo) and to begin to determine whether this is associated with the anemia of space flight. We chose to use a model cell culture system with which we have had a long and successful experience. These cells, designated Rauscher murine erythroleukemia, grow independently in suspension culture. We first compared the growth rate of Rauscher cells under conditions of simulated microgravity with that of cells grown at 1XG in standard tissue culture flasks. Therefore, since there were fewer cells in the RWV at each specified time, glucose consumption per cell was increased in simulated microgravity. We next began to study the effect of simulated microgravity on erythropoietin induced differentiation of these cells. In another experiment, we allow the cells to grown in flasks or in the RWV for 24 hours prior to the addition of Epo. We initiated studies of c-myb, a proto-oncogene the down-regulation of which is necessary for erythroid differentiation. These preliminary results suggest that simulated microgravity interferes with the signal to c-myb. This may be part of the mechanism that blocks differentiation. A flight experiment is planned within the next 18- 24 months.

Sytkowski, Arthur J.↗
DOE OSTI2021

Chlamydomonas as a model for reactive oxygen species signaling and thiol redox regulation in the green lineage

While the maintenance of redox balance is important for all organisms, the energy balance in the chloroplast is particularly tightly linked to the overall cellular redox status in photosynthetic organisms. Excess light can cause overreduction of the photosynthetic electron transport chain, which, when unchecked, results in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can oxidize cellular components including nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids (Li et al., 2009). A photosynthetic cell possesses multiple layers of defense against oxidative stress, such as antioxidant enzymes (Foyer and Noctor, 2005) and alternative electron transfer pathways (Alric and Johnson, 2017). At the same time, ROS can function as important signals that mediate responses to biotic and abiotic stresses (Apel and Hirt, 2004). Reversibly oxidizable small molecules and proteins can serve as ROS sinks and signals and are re-reduced by multiple mechanisms. For example, the ascorbate–glutathione (GSH) cycle is central in controlling ROS levels and regenerating/reducing oxidized cellular redox agents (Figure 1A; reviewed by Foyer and Noctor, 2011). The functions of many proteins can be regulated by the redox state of cysteine residues, such as the formation or reduction of disulfides by thioredoxins (TRX) (Buchanan, 1991) and glutaredoxins (Michelet et al., 2013b; Figure 1, B and C).

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Integrative Multi-PTM Proteomics Reveals Dynamic Global, Redox, Phosphorylation, and Acetylation Regulation in Cytokine-treated Pancreatic Beta Cells

Studying regulation of protein function at a systems level necessitates an understanding of the interplay among diverse post-translational modifications (PTMs). A variety of proteomics sample processing workflows are currently used to study specific PTMs but rarely characterize multiple types of PTMs from the same sample inputs. Method incompatibilities and laborious sample preparation steps complicate large-scale physiological investigations and can lead to variations in results. The single-pot, solid-phase-enhanced sample preparation (SP3) method for sample cleanup is compatible with different lysis buffers and amenable to automation, making it attractive for high-throughput multi-PTM profiling. Herein, we describe an integrative SP3 workflow for multiplexed quantification of protein abundance, cysteine thiol oxidation, phosphorylation, and acetylation. The broad applicability of this approach is demonstrated using cell and tissue samples, and its utility for studying interacting regulatory networks is highlighted in a time-course experiment of cytokine-treated ß-cells. We observed a swift response in global regulation of protein abundances consistent with rapid activation of JAK-STAT and NF-?B signaling pathways. Regulators of these pathways as well as proteins involved in their target processes displayed multi-PTM dynamics indicative of a complex cellular response stages: acute, adaptation, and chronic (prolonged stress). PARP14, a negative regulator of JAK-STAT, had multiple co-localized PTMs that may be involved in intraprotein regulatory crosstalk. Our workflow provides a high-throughput platform that can profile multi-PTMomes from the same sample set, which is valuable in unraveling the functional roles of PTMs and their co-regulation.

proteomics, PTM, automation, SP3, cysteine thiol o↗
NASA NTRS2010

NASA Tech Briefs, January 2010

Topics covered include: Cryogenic Flow Sensor; Multi-Sensor Mud Detection; Gas Flow Detection System; Mapping Capacitive Coupling Among Pixels in a Sensor Array; Fiber-Based Laser Transmitter for Oxygen A-Band Spectroscopy and Remote Sensing; Low-Profile, Dual-Wavelength, Dual-Polarized Antenna; Time-Separating Heating and Sensor Functions of Thermistors in Precision Thermal Control Applications; Cellular Reflectarray Antenna; A One-Dimensional Synthetic-Aperture Microwave Radiometer; Electrical Switching of Perovskite Thin-Film Resistors; Two-Dimensional Synthetic-Aperture Radiometer; Ethernet-Enabled Power and Communication Module for Embedded Processors; Electrically Variable Resistive Memory Devices; Improved Attachment in a Hybrid Inflatable Pressure Vessel; Electrostatic Separator for Beneficiation of Lunar Soil; Amorphous Rover; Space-Frame Antenna; Gear-Driven Turnbuckle Actuator; In-Situ Focusing Inside a Thermal Vacuum Chamber; Space-Frame Lunar Lander; Wider-Opening Dewar Flasks for Cryogenic Storage; Silicon Oxycarbide Aerogels for High-Temperature Thermal Insulation; Supercapacitor Electrolyte Solvents with Liquid Range Below -80 C; Designs and Materials for Better Coronagraph Occulting Masks; Fuel-Cell-Powered Vehicle with Hybrid Power Management; Fine-Water-Mist Multiple-Orientation-Discharge Fire Extinguisher; Fuel-Cell Water Separator; Turbulence and the Stabilization Principle; Improved Cloud Condensation Nucleus Spectrometer; Better Modeling of Electrostatic Discharge in an Insulator; Sub-Aperture Interferometers; Terahertz Mapping of Microstructure and Thickness Variations; Multiparallel Three-Dimensional Optical Microscopy; Stabilization of Phase of a Sinusoidal Signal Transmitted Over Optical Fiber; Vacuum-Compatible Wideband White Light and Laser Combiner Source System; Optical Tapers as White-Light WGM Resonators; EPR Imaging at a Few Megahertz Using SQUID Detectors; Reducing Field Distortion in Magnetic Resonance Imaging; Fluorogenic Cell-Based Biosensors for Monitoring Microbes; A Constant-Force Resistive Exercise Unit; GUI to Facilitate Research on Biological Damage from Radiation; On-Demand Urine Analyzer; More-Realistic Digital Modeling of a Human Body; and Advanced Liquid-Cooling Garment Using Highly Thermally Conductive Sheets.

Source record↗
NASA NTRS1999

Cloning the promoter for transforming growth factor-beta type III receptor. Basal and conditional expression in fetal rat osteoblasts

Transforming growth factor-beta binds to three high affinity cell surface molecules that directly or indirectly regulate its biological effects. The type III receptor (TRIII) is a proteoglycan that lacks significant intracellular signaling or enzymatic motifs but may facilitate transforming growth factor-beta binding to other receptors, stabilize multimeric receptor complexes, or segregate growth factor from activating receptors. Because various agents or events that regulate osteoblast function rapidly modulate TRIII expression, we cloned the 5' region of the rat TRIII gene to assess possible control elements. DNA fragments from this region directed high reporter gene expression in osteoblasts. Sequencing showed no consensus TATA or CCAAT boxes, whereas several nuclear factors binding sequences within the 3' region of the promoter co-mapped with multiple transcription initiation sites, DNase I footprints, gel mobility shift analysis, or loss of activity by deletion or mutation. An upstream enhancer was evident 5' proximal to nucleotide -979, and a silencer region occurred between nucleotides -2014 and -2194. Glucocorticoid sensitivity mapped between nucleotides -687 and -253, whereas bone morphogenetic protein 2 sensitivity co-mapped within the silencer region. Thus, the TRIII promoter contains cooperative basal elements and dispersed growth factor- and hormone-sensitive regulatory regions that can control TRIII expression by osteoblasts.

Non-NASA Center↗
NASA NTRS1991

Phytochrome-mediated germination and early development in spores of Dryopteris filix-mas L.: phase-specific and non phase-specific inhibition by staurosporine

The alkaloid staurosporine, currently known as the most potent inhibitor of protein kinase C, PKC, was tested for its ability to inhibit phytochrome-mediated spore germination in Dryopteris filix-mas L., evaluated by the induction of chlorophyll synthesis. Approximately half-maximal inhibition was obtained at a concentration of 10(-5) M. This effect of staurosporine was phase-specific and was found during the same period in which the presence of extracellular calcium is necessary for realization of the light signal. Furthermore, the ability of staurosporine to prevent progression of a germinated spore into early gametophyte development, evaluated by the accumulation of chlorophyll, was examined. Again, staurosporine (10(-5) M) significantly diminished chlorophyll accumulation, determined quantitatively in vivo by single-cell measurements, in a non-phase specific way. The fact that the phase-specific inhibitory effect of staurosporine in preventing germination was coincident with the phase-specific requirement of Ca2+ suggests that both Ca2+ and staurosporine affect the same step in the signal-transduction chain. A phosphorylation event catalysed by PKC or any Ca2+ -dependent protein kinase is proposed as the target of staurosporine and Ca2+.

Non-NASA Center↗
DOE OSTI2021

Role of karyopherin nuclear transport receptors in nuclear transport by nuclear trafficking peptide

Nuclear trafficking peptide (NTP), a cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) composed of 10 amino acids (aa) (RIFIHFRIGC), has potent nuclear trafficking activity. Recently, we established a protein-based cell engineering system by using NTP, but it remained elusive how NTP functions as a CPP with nuclear orientation. In the present study, we identified importin subunit β1 (IMB1) and transportin 1 (TNPO1) as cellular proteins underlying the activity of NTP. These karyopherin nuclear transport receptors were identified as candidate molecules by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis, and downregulation of each protein by small interfering RNA significantly reduced NTP activity (P < 0.01). Biochemical analyses revealed that NTP bound directly to both molecules, and the forced expression of an IMB1 fragment (296–516 aa) or TNPO1 fragment (1–297 aa), which both contain binding sites to NTP, reduced nuclear NTP-green fluorescent protein (GFP) levels when it was added to cell culture medium. NTP is derived from viral protein R (Vpr) of human immunodeficiency virus-1, and Vpr enters the nucleus and exerts pleiotropic functions. Notably, Vpr bound directly to IMB1 and TNPO1, and its function was significantly impaired by the forced expression of the 296–516-aa fragment of IMB1 and 1–297-aa fragment of TNPO1. Interestingly, NTP completely blocked the physical association of Vpr with IMB1 and TNPO1. Although the nuclear localization mechanism of Vpr remains unknown, our data suggest that NTP functions as a novel nuclear localization signal of Vpr.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

Electric-field-tunable electronic nematic order in twisted double-bilayer graphene

Graphene-based moiré systems have attracted considerable interest in recent years as they display a remarkable variety of correlated phenomena. Besides insulating and superconducting phases in the vicinity of integer fillings of the moiré unit cell, there is growing evidence for electronic nematic order both in twisted bilayer graphene and twisted double-bilayer graphene (tDBG), as signaled by the spontaneous breaking of the threefold rotational symmetry of the moiré superlattices. Here, we combine symmetry-based analysis with a microscopic continuum model to investigate the structure of the nematic phase of tDBG and its experimental manifestations. First, we perform a detailed comparison between the theoretically calculated local density of states and recent scanning tunneling microscopy data (arXiv:2009.11645) to resolve the internal structure of the nematic order parameter in terms of the layer, sublattice, spin, and valley degrees of freedom. We find strong evidence that the dominant contribution to the nematic order parameter comes from states at the moiré scale rather than at the microscopic scale of the individual graphene layers, which demonstrates the key role played by the moiré degrees of freedom and confirms the correlated nature of the nematic phase in tDBG. Secondly, our analysis reveals an unprecedented tunability of the orientation of the nematic director in tDBG by an externally applied electric field, allowing the director to rotate away from high-symmetry crystalline directions. Here, we compute the expected fingerprints of this rotation in both STM and transport experiments, providing feasible ways to probe it. Rooted in the strong sensitivity of the flat bands of tDBG to the displacement field, this effect opens an interesting route to the electrostatic control of electronic nematicity in moiré systems.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

SARS-CoV-2 Diverges from Other Betacoronaviruses in Only Partially Activating the IRE1α/XBP1 Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Pathway in Human Lung-Derived Cells

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has killed over 6 million individuals worldwide and continues to spread in countries where vaccines are not yet widely available or its citizens are hesitant to become vaccinated. Therefore, it is critical to unravel the molecular mechanisms that allow SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses to infect and overtake the host machinery of human cells. Coronavirus replication triggers endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR), a key host cell pathway widely believed to be essential for viral replication. We examined the master UPR sensor IRE1α kinase/RNase and its downstream transcription factor effector XBP1s, which is processed through an IRE1α-mediated mRNA splicing event, in human lung-derived cells infected with betacoronaviruses. We found that human respiratory coronavirus OC43 (HCoV-OC43), Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), and murine coronavirus (MHV) all induce ER stress and strongly trigger the kinase and RNase activities of IRE1α as well as XBP1 splicing. In contrast, SARS-CoV-2 only partially activates IRE1α through autophosphorylation, but its RNase activity fails to splice XBP1. Moreover, while IRE1α was dispensable for replication in human cells for all coronaviruses tested, it was required for maximal expression of genes associated with several key cellular functions, including the interferon signaling pathway, during SARS-CoV-2 infection. Our data suggest that SARS-CoV-2 actively inhibits the RNase of autophosphorylated IRE1α, perhaps as a strategy to eliminate detection by the host immune system.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Evolutionary history of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and genomic signatures of obligate symbiosis

The colonization of land and the diversification of terrestrial plants is intimately linked to the evolutionary history of their symbiotic fungal partners. Extant representatives of these fungal lineages include mutualistic plant symbionts, the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi in Glomeromycota and fine root endophytes in Endogonales (Mucoromycota), as well as fungi with saprotrophic, pathogenic and endophytic lifestyles. These fungal groups separate into three monophyletic lineages but their evolutionary relationships remain enigmatic confounding ancestral reconstructions. Their taxonomic ranks are currently fluid. In this study, we recognize these three monophyletic linages as phyla, and use a balanced taxon sampling and broad taxonomic representation for phylogenomic analysis that rejects a hard polytomy and resolves Glomeromycota as sister to a clade composed of Mucoromycota and Mortierellomycota. Low copy numbers of genes associated with plant cell wall degradation could not be assigned to the transition to a plant symbiotic lifestyle but appears to be an ancestral phylogenetic signal. Both plant symbiotic lineages, Glomeromycota and Endogonales, lack numerous thiamine metabolism genes but the lack of fatty acid synthesis genes is specific to AM fungi. Many genes previously thought to be missing specifically in Glomeromycota are either missing in all analyzed phyla, or in some cases, are actually present in some of the analyzed AM fungal lineages, e.g. the high affinity phosphorus transporter Pho89. Based on a broad taxon sampling of fungal genomes we present a well-supported phylogeny for AM fungi and their sister lineages. We show that among these lineages, two independent evolutionary transitions to mutualistic plant symbiosis happened in a genomic background profoundly different from that known from the emergence of ectomycorrhizal fungi in Dikarya. These results call for further reevaluation of genomic signatures associated with plant symbiosis.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS1975

Radar measurements of Martian topography and surface properties - The 1971 and 1973 oppositions

The Goldstone radar system was used at a wavelength of 12.6 cm to probe the Martian surface during the 1973 opposition. Measurements of range and reflected power were made at least weekly between July 12 and November 24. Surface cells isolated by the radar system were 8 km E-W by 110 km N-S. Altitudes were calculated from signal time delays measured relative to a triaxial ellipsoid and were combined with altitudes measured during the 1971 opposition. Contours of constant altitude were calculated at 200 m intervals between latitudes -14 and -22 deg. These contours are presented in conjunction with Mars charts derived from Mariner 9 television pictures. Reflected power was measured at angles of incidence between -5 and +5 deg. These measurements were combined with those obtained during the 1971 opposition.

Downs, G. S.↗
NASA NTRS1984

Programable Power Conditioner

Accepts range of inputs and produces range of outputs. Versatile power conditioner programed to handle power from wide range of sources such as solar arrays, fuel cells, and electrochemical batteries. Conditioner consists of two parts. Power stage is switching regulator. Controller stage uses microprocessor to generate analog control signal for power stage.

Lanier, J. R.↗