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NASA NTRS2012

Assessment of NASA's Aircraft Noise Prediction Capability

A goal of NASA s Fundamental Aeronautics Program is the improvement of aircraft noise prediction. This document provides an assessment, conducted from 2006 to 2009, on the current state of the art for aircraft noise prediction by carefully analyzing the results from prediction tools and from the experimental databases to determine errors and uncertainties and compare results to validate the predictions. The error analysis is included for both the predictions and the experimental data and helps identify where improvements are required. This study is restricted to prediction methods and databases developed or sponsored by NASA, although in many cases they represent the current state of the art for industry. The present document begins with an introduction giving a general background for and a discussion on the process of this assessment followed by eight chapters covering topics at both the system and the component levels. The topic areas, each with multiple contributors, are aircraft system noise, engine system noise, airframe noise, fan noise, liner physics, duct acoustics, jet noise, and propulsion airframe aeroacoustics.

Dahl, Milo D.↗

NASA NTRS2012

Advanced Jet Noise Exhaust Concepts in NASA's N+2 Supersonics Validation Study and the Environmentally Responsible Aviation Project's Upcoming Hybrid Wing Body Acoustics Test

Acoustic and flow-field experiments were conducted on exhaust concepts for the next generation supersonic, commercial aircraft. The concepts were developed by Lockheed Martin (LM), Rolls-Royce Liberty Works (RRLW), and General Electric Global Research (GEGR) as part of an N+2 (next generation forward) aircraft system study initiated by the Supersonics Project in NASA s Fundamental Aeronautics Program. The experiments were conducted in the Aero-Acoustic Propulsion Laboratory at the NASA Glenn Research Center. The exhaust concepts presented here utilized lobed-mixers and ejectors. A powered third-stream was implemented to improve ejector acoustic performance. One concept was found to produce stagnant flow within the ejector and the other produced discrete-frequency tones (due to flow separations within the model) that degraded the acoustic performance of the exhaust concept. NASA's Environmentally Responsible Aviation (ERA) Project has been investigating a Hybrid Wing Body (HWB) aircraft as a possible configuration for meeting N+2 system level goals for noise, emissions, and fuel burn. A recently completed NRA led by Boeing Research and Technology resulted in a full-scale aircraft design and wind tunnel model. This model will be tested acoustically in NASA Langley's 14-by 22-Foot Subsonic Tunnel and will include dual jet engine simulators and broadband engine noise simulators as part of the test campaign. The objectives of the test are to characterize the system level noise, quantify the effects of shielding, and generate a valuable database for prediction method development. Further details of the test and various component preparations are described.

Henderson, Brenda S.↗

NASA NTRS2010

Investigation of Rotor Performance and Loads of a UH-60A Individual Blade Control System

A full-scale wind tunnel test was recently conducted (March 2009) in the National Full-Scale Aerodynamics Complex (NFAC) 40- by 80-FootWind Tunnel to evaluate the potential of an individual blade control (IBC) system to improve rotor performance and reduce vibrations, loads, and noise for a UH-60A rotor system [1]. This test was the culmination of a long-termcollaborative effort between NASA, U.S. Army, Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation, and ZF Luftfahrttechnik GmbH (ZFL) to demonstrate the benefits of IBC for a UH-60Arotor. Figure 1 shows the UH-60Arotor and IBC system mounted on the NFAC Large Rotor Test Apparatus (LRTA). The IBC concept used in the current study utilizes actuators placed in the rotating frame, one per blade. In particular, the pitch link of the rotor blade was replacedwith an actuator, so that the blade root pitch can be changed independently. This concept, designed for a full-scale UH-60A rotor, was previously tested in the NFAC 80- by 120-FootWind Tunnel in September 2001 at speeds up to 85 knots [2]. For the current test, the same UH-60A rotor and IBC system were tested in the 40- by 80-FootWind Tunnel at speeds up to 170 knots. Figure 2 shows the servo-hydraulic IBC actuator installed between the swashplate and the blade pitch horn. Although previous wind tunnel experiments [3, 4] and analytical studies on IBC [5, 6] have shown the promise to improve the rotor s performance, in-depth correlation studies have not been performed. Thus, the current test provides a unique resource that can be used to assess the accuracy and reliability of prediction methods and refine theoretical models, with the ultimate goal of providing the technology for timely and cost-effective design and development of new rotors. In this paper, rotor performance and loads calculations are carried out using the analyses CAMRAD II and coupled OVERFLOW-2/CAMRAD II and the results are compared with these UH-60A/IBC wind tunnel test data.

Yeo, Hyeonsoo↗

NASA NTRS2013

CMC Technology Advancements for Gas Turbine Engine Applications

CMC research at NASA Glenn is focused on aircraft propulsion applications. The objective is to enable reduced engine emissions and fuel consumption for more environmentally friendly aircraft. Engine system studies show that incorporation of ceramic composites into turbine engines will enable significant reductions in emissions and fuel burn due to increased engine efficiency resulting from reduced cooling requirements for hot section components. This presentation will describe recent progress and challenges in developing fiber and matrix constituents for 2700 F CMC turbine applications. In addition, ongoing research in the development of durable environmental barrier coatings, ceramic joining integration technologies and life prediction methods for CMC engine components will be reviewed.

Grady, Joseph E.↗

NASA NTRS2013

Towards Bridging the Gaps in Holistic Transition Prediction via Numerical Simulations

The economic and environmental benefits of laminar flow technology via reduced fuel burn of subsonic and supersonic aircraft cannot be realized without minimizing the uncertainty in drag prediction in general and transition prediction in particular. Transition research under NASA's Aeronautical Sciences Project seeks to develop a validated set of variable fidelity prediction tools with known strengths and limitations, so as to enable "sufficiently" accurate transition prediction and practical transition control for future vehicle concepts. This paper provides a summary of selected research activities targeting the current gaps in high-fidelity transition prediction, specifically those related to the receptivity and laminar breakdown phases of crossflow induced transition in a subsonic swept-wing boundary layer. The results of direct numerical simulations are used to obtain an enhanced understanding of the laminar breakdown region as well as to validate reduced order prediction methods.

Choudhari, Meelan M.↗

NASA NTRS2013

A CFD Database for Airfoils and Wings at Post-Stall Angles of Attack

This paper presents selected results from an ongoing effort to develop an aerodynamic database from Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) computational analysis of airfoils and wings at stall and post-stall angles of attack. The data obtained from this effort will be used for validation and refinement of a low-order post-stall prediction method developed at NCSU, and to fill existing gaps in high angle of attack data in the literature. Such data could have potential applications in post-stall flight dynamics, helicopter aerodynamics and wind turbine aerodynamics. An overview of the NASA TetrUSS CFD package used for the RANS computational approach is presented. Detailed results for three airfoils are presented to compare their stall and post-stall behavior. The results for finite wings at stall and post-stall conditions focus on the effects of taper-ratio and sweep angle, with particular attention to whether the sectional flows can be approximated using two-dimensional flow over a stalled airfoil. While this approximation seems reasonable for unswept wings even at post-stall conditions, significant spanwise flow on stalled swept wings preclude the use of two-dimensional data to model sectional flows on swept wings. Thus, further effort is needed in low-order aerodynamic modeling of swept wings at stalled conditions.

Petrilli, Justin↗

NASA NTRS2013

Characterizing the Response of Composite Panels to a Pyroshock Induced Environment using Design of Experiments Methodology

This experimental study seeks to quantify the impact various composite parameters have on the structural response of a composite structure in a pyroshock environment. The prediction of an aerospace structure's response to pyroshock induced loading is largely dependent on empirical databases created from collections of development and flight test data. While there is significant structural response data due to pyroshock induced loading for metallic structures, there is much less data available for composite structures. One challenge of developing a composite pyroshock response database as well as empirical prediction methods for composite structures is the large number of parameters associated with composite materials. This experimental study uses data from a test series planned using design of experiments (DOE) methods. Statistical analysis methods are then used to identify which composite material parameters most greatly influence a flat composite panel's structural response to pyroshock induced loading. The parameters considered are panel thickness, type of ply, ply orientation, and pyroshock level induced into the panel. The results of this test will aid in future large scale testing by eliminating insignificant parameters as well as aid in the development of empirical scaling methods for composite structures' response to pyroshock induced loading.

Parsons, David S.↗

NASA NTRS2013

Experimental Database with Baseline CFD Solutions: 2-D and Axisymmetric Hypersonic Shock-Wave/Turbulent-Boundary-Layer Interactions

A database compilation of hypersonic shock-wave/turbulent boundary layer experiments is provided. The experiments selected for the database are either 2D or axisymmetric, and include both compression corner and impinging type SWTBL interactions. The strength of the interactions range from attached to incipient separation to fully separated flows. The experiments were chosen based on criterion to ensure quality of the datasets, to be relevant to NASA's missions and to be useful for validation and uncertainty assessment of CFD Navier-Stokes predictive methods, both now and in the future. An emphasis on datasets selected was on surface pressures and surface heating throughout the interaction, but include some wall shear stress distributions and flowfield profiles. Included, for selected cases, are example CFD grids and setup information, along with surface pressure and wall heating results from simulations using current NASA real-gas Navier-Stokes codes by which future CFD investigators can compare and evaluate physics modeling improvements and validation and uncertainty assessments of future CFD code developments. The experimental database is presented tabulated in the Appendices describing each experiment. The database is also provided in computer-readable ASCII files located on a companion DVD.

Database↗

NASA NTRS2013

Characterizing the Response of Composite Panels to a Pyroshock Induced Environment Using Design of Experiments Methodology

Parsons, David S.↗

NASA NTRS2013

Characterizing the Response of Composite Panels to a Pyroshock Induced Environment Using Design of Experiments Methodology

This experimental study seeks to quantify the impact various composite parameters have on the structural response of a composite structure in a pyroshock environment. The prediction of an aerospace structure's response to shock induced loading is largely dependent on empirical databases created from collections of development and flight test data. While there is significant structural response data due to shock induced loading for metallic structures, there is much less data available for composite structures. One challenge of developing a composite shock response database as well as empirical prediction methods for composite structures is the large number of parameters associated with composite materials. This experimental study uses data from a test series planned using design of experiments (DOE) methods. Statistical analysis methods are then used to identify which composite material parameters most greatly influence a flat composite panel's structural response to shock induced loading. The parameters considered are panel thickness, type of ply, ply orientation, and shock level induced into the panel. The results of this test will aid in future large scale testing by eliminating insignificant parameters as well as aid in the development of empirical scaling methods for composite structures' response to shock induced loading.

Parsons, David↗

NASA NTRS2014

Experiments on Exhaust Noise of Tightly Integrated Propulsion Systems

A wide-ranging series of tests have been completed that seek to map the effects of installation, including jet by jet interaction effects, on exhaust noise from various nozzles in forward flight. The primary data was far-field acoustic spectral directivity. The goals of the test series were (i) to generate enough data for empirical models of the different effects, and (ii) to provide data for advanced computational noise predictions methods applied to simplified yet realistic configurations. Data is presented that demonstrate several checks on data quality and that provide an overview of trends observed to date. Among the findings presented here: (i) Data was repeatable between jet rigs for single nozzles with and without surfaces to within +/- 0.5 dB. (ii) The presence of a second jet caused a strong reduction of the summed noise in the plane of the two plumes and an increase over the expected source doubling in most other azimuthal planes. (iii) The impact of the second jet was reduced when the jets were unheated. (iv) The impact of adding a second isolated rectangular jet was relatively independent of the nozzle aspect ratio up to aspect ratio 8:1. (v) Forward flight had similar impact on a high aspect ratio (8:1) jet as on an axisymmetric jet, except at the peak noise angle where the impact was less. (vi) The effect of adding a second round jet to a tightly integrated nozzle where the nozzle lip was less than a diameter from the surface was very dependent upon the length of the surface downstream of the nozzle. (vii) When the nozzles were rectangular and tightly integrated with the airframe surface the impact of a second jet was very dependent upon how close together the two jets were. This paper serves as an overview of the test; other papers presented in the same conference will give more detailed analysis of the results.

Noise↗

NASA NTRS2011

Wallops' Low Elevation Link Analysis for the Constellation Launch/Ascent Links

Prior to the redirection of the Constellation Program, the Wallops 11.3-meter ground station was tasked to support the Orion's Dissimilar Voice (DV) link and the Ares's Development Flight Instrument (DFI) link. Detailed analysis of the launch trajectories indicates that during the launch and ascent operation, the critical events of Orion-Ares main engine cut off (MECO) and Separation occur at low elevation angle. We worked with engineers from both Wallops Flight Facility (WFF) and Johnson Space Center (JSC) to perform an intensive measurement and link analysis campaign on the DV and DFI links. The main results were as follows: (1) The DV links have more than 3 dB margin at MECO and Separation. (2) The DFI links have 0 dB margin at Separation during certain weather condition in summer season. (3) Tropospheric scintillation loss is the major impairment at low elevation angle. (4) The current scintillation models in the Recommendation ITU-R P.618 (Propagation data and prediction methods required for the design of Earth-space telecommunication systems), which are based on limited experimental and theoretical work, exhibit idiosyncratic behaviors. We developed an improved model based on the measurements of recent Shuttle mission launch and ascent links and the ITU propagation data. (5) Due to the attitude uncertainty of the Orion-Ares stack, the high dynamics of the launch and ascent trajectory, and the irregularity of the Orion and Ares antenna patterns, we employed new link analysis approach to model the spacecraft antenna gain. In this paper we discuss the details of the aforementioned results.

Cheung, Kar-Ming↗

NASA NTRS2015

Predicting Time Series Outputs and Time-to-Failure for an Aircraft Controller Using Bayesian Modeling

Safety of unmanned aerial systems (UAS) is paramount, but the large number of dynamically changing controller parameters makes it hard to determine if the system is currently stable, and the time before loss of control if not. We propose a hierarchical statistical model using Treed Gaussian Processes to predict (i) whether a flight will be stable (success) or become unstable (failure), (ii) the time-to-failure if unstable, and (iii) time series outputs for flight variables. We first classify the current flight input into success or failure types, and then use separate models for each class to predict the time-to-failure and time series outputs. As different inputs may cause failures at different times, we have to model variable length output curves. We use a basis representation for curves and learn the mappings from input to basis coefficients. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our prediction methods on a NASA neuro-adaptive flight control system.

Statistics↗

NASA NTRS2015

Improving the Timeliness of Winter Wheat Production Forecast in the United States of America, Ukraine and China Using MODIS Data and NCAR Growing Degree Day Information

Wheat is themost important cereal crop traded on international markets and winter wheat constitutes approximately 80% of global wheat production. Thus, accurate and timely production forecasts are critical for making informed agricultural policies and investments, as well as increasing market efficiency and stability. Becker-Reshef et al. (2010) developed an empirical generalized model for forecasting winter wheat production. Their approach combined BRDF-corrected daily surface reflectance from Moderate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Climate Modeling Grid (CMG) with detailed official crop statistics and crop typemasks. It is based on the relationship between the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) at the peak of the growing season, percent wheat within the CMG pixel (area within the CMG pixel occupied by wheat), and the final yields. This method predicts the yield approximately one month to six weeks prior to harvest. In this study, we include Growing Degree Day (GDD) information extracted from NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data in order to improve the winter wheat production forecast by increasing the timeliness of the forecasts while conserving the accuracy of the original model. We apply this modified model to three major wheat-producing countries: the Unites States (US), Ukraine and China from 2001 to 2012. We show that a reliable forecast can be made between one month to a month and a half prior to the peak NDVI (meaning two months to two and a half months prior to harvest), while conserving an accuracy of 10% in the production forecast.

Production↗

NASA NTRS2016

Toward Reduced Aircraft Community Noise Impact Via a Perception-Influenced Design Approach

This is an exciting time for aircraft design. New configurations, including small multi-rotor uncrewed aerial systems, fixed- and tilt-wing distributed electric propulsion aircraft, high-speed rotorcraft, hybrid-electric commercial transports, and low-boom supersonic transports, are being made possible through a host of propulsion and airframe technology developments. The resulting noise signatures may be radically different, both spectrally and temporally, than those of the current fleet. Noise certification metrics currently used in aircraft design do not necessarily reflect these characteristics and therefore may not correlate well with human response. Further, as operations and missions become less airport-centric, e.g., those associated with on-demand mobility or package delivery, vehicles may operate in closer proximity to the population than ever before. Fortunately, a new set of tools are available for assessing human perception during the design process in order to affect the final design in a positive manner. The tool chain utilizes system noise prediction methods coupled with auralization and psychoacoustic testing, making possible the inclusion of human response to noise, along with performance criteria and certification requirements, into the aircraft design process. Several case studies are considered to illustrate how this approach could be used to influence the design of future aircraft.

Rizzi, Stephen A.↗

NASA NTRS2016

Investigation of Damping Physics and CFD Tool Validation for Simulation of Baffled Tanks at Variable Slosh Amplitude

To meet the flight control damping requirement, baffles of various configurations have been devised to increase the natural viscous damping and decrease the magnitude of the slosh forces and torques. In the design of slosh baffles, the most widely used damping equation is the one derived by Miles, which is based on the experiments of Keulegan and Carpenter. This equation has been used in predicting damping of the baffled tanks in different diameters ranging from 12 to 112 inches. The analytical expression of Miles equation is easy to use, especially in the design of complex baffle system. Previous investigations revealed that some experiments had shown good agreements with the prediction method of Miles, whereas other experiments have shown significant deviations. For example, damping from Miles equation differs from experimental measurements by as much as 100 percent over a range of tank diameters from 12 to 112 inches, oscillation amplitudes from 0.1 to 1.5 baffle widths, and baffle depths of 0.3 to 0.5 tank radius. Previously, much of this difference has been attributed to experimental scatter. A systematical study is needed to understand the damping physics of baffled tanks, to identify the difference between Miles equation and experimental measurement, and to develop new semi-empirical relations to better represent the real damping physics. The approach of this study is to use CFD technology to shed light on the damping mechanisms of a baffled tank. First, a 1-D Navier-Stokes equation representing different length scales and time scales in the baffle damping physics is developed and analyzed. A well validated CFD solver, developed at NASA MSFC, Loci-STREAM-VOF, is applied to study vorticity field around the baffle and around the fluid interface to highlight the dissipation mechanisms at different slosh amplitudes. Previous measurement data are then used to validate the CFD damping results. The study found several critical parameters controlling fluid damping from a baffle: local slosh amplitude to baffle thickness (A/t), surface liquid depth to tank radius (h/R), local slosh amplitude to baffle width (A/W); and non-dimensional slosh frequency. The simulation highlights three significant damping regimes where different mechanisms dominate. The study proves that the previously found discrepancies between Miles equation and experimental measurement are not due to the measurement scatter, but rather due to different damping mechanisms at various slosh amplitudes. The limitations on the use of Miles equation are discussed based on the flow regime.

Yang, H. Q.↗

NASA NTRS2017

Implementation of a Battery Health Monitor and Vertical Lift Aircraft Testbed for the Application of an Electrochemisty-Based State of Charge Estimator

Prediction methods concerning remaining charge in lithium-ion batteries that power unmanned aerial vehicles are of critical concern for the safe fulfillment of mission objectives. In recent years, lithium-ion batteries have been the power source for both fixed wing and vertical lift electric vehicles. The purpose of this document is to describe in detail the implementation of a battery health monitor for estimating the state of charge of a lithium-ion battery and a lithium-ion polymer battery that is used to power a vertical lift aircraft test-bed. It will be demonstrated that an electro-chemistry based state of charge estimator effectively tracks battery discharge characteristics and may be employed as a useful tool in monitoring battery health.

Potteiger, Timothy R.↗

NASA NTRS2017

Molecular Based Temperature and Strain Rate Dependent Yield Criterion for Anisotropic Elastomeric Thin Films

A molecular formulation of the onset of plasticity is proposed to assess temperature and strain rate effects in anisotropic semi-crystalline rubbery films. The presented plane stress criterion is based on the strain rate-temperature superposition principle and the cooperative theory of yielding, where some parameters are assumed to be material constants, while others are considered to depend on specific modes of deformation. An orthotropic yield function is developed for a linear low density polyethylene thin film. Uniaxial and biaxial inflation experiments were carried out to determine the yield stress of the membrane via a strain recovery method. It is shown that the 3% offset method predicts the uniaxial elastoplastic transition with good accuracy. Both the tensile yield points along the two principal directions of the film and the biaxial yield stresses are found to obey the superposition principle. The proposed yield criterion is compared against experimental measurements, showing excellent agreement over a wide range of deformation rates and temperatures.

Bosi, F.↗