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All sources NASA NTRS DOE OSTI

DOE OSTI2015

jacobteter/CropWatR

Biofuels policies induce land use changes (LUC), including cropland expansion and crop switching, and this in turn alters water and soil management practices. Policies differ in the extent and type of land use changes they induce and therefore in their impact on water resources. We quantify and compare the spatially varying water impacts of biofuel crops stemming from LUC induced by two different biofuels policies by coupling a biophysical model with an economic model to simulate the economically viable mix of crops, land uses, and crop management choices under alternative policy scenarios. We assess the outputs of an economic model with a high-resolution crop-water model for major agricultural crops and potential cellulosic feedstocks in the US to analyze the impacts of three alternative policy scenarios on water balances: a counterfactual ‘no-biofuels policy’ (BAU) scenario, a volumetric mandate (Mandate) scenario, and a clean fuel-intensity standard (CFS) scenario incentivizing fuels based on their carbon intensities. While both biofuel policies incentivize more biofuels than in the counterfactual, they differ in the mix of corn ethanol and advanced biofuels from miscanthus and switchgrass (more corn ethanol in Mandate and more cellulosic biofuels in CFS). The two policies differ in their impact on irrigated acreage, irrigation demand, groundwater use and runoff. Net irrigation requirements increase 0.7% in Mandate and decrease 3.8% in CFS, but in both scenarios increases are concentrated in regions of Kansas and Nebraska that rely upon the Ogallala aquifer for irrigation water. Our study illustrates the importance of accounting for the overall LUC and shifts in agricultural production and management practices in response to policies when assessing the water impacts of biofuels.

Teter, Jacob↗

DOE OSTI2018

Water impacts of U.S. biofuels: Insights from an assessment combining economic and biophysical models

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2014

RBAC Driven Least Privilege Architecture For Control Systems

The concept of role based access control (RBAC) within the IT environment has been studied by researchers and was supported by NIST (circa 1992). This earlier work highlighted the benefits of RBAC which include reduced administrative workload and policies which are easier to analyze and apply. The goals of this research were to expand the application of RBAC in the following ways. Apply RBAC to the control systems environment: The typical RBAC model within the IT environment is used to control a user’s access to files. Within the control system environment files are replaced with measurement (e.g., temperature) and control (e.g. valve) points organized as a hierarchy of control assets (e.g. a boiler, compressor, refinery unit). Control points have parameters (e.g., high alarm limit, set point, etc.) associated with them. The RBAC model is extended to support access to points and their parameters based upon roles while at the same time allowing permissions for the points to be defined at the asset level or point level directly. In addition, centralized policy administration with distributed access enforcement mechanisms was developed to support the distributed architecture of distributed control systems and SCADA; Extend the RBAC model to include access control for software and devices: The established RBAC approach is to assign users to roles. This work extends that notion by first breaking the control system down into three layers 1) users, 2) software and 3) devices. An RBAC model is then created for each of these three layers. The result is that RBAC can be used to define machine-to-machine policy enforced via the IP security (IPsec) protocol. This highlights the potential to use RBAC for machine-to-machine connectivity within the internet of things; and Enable dynamic policy based upon the operating mode of the system: The IT environment is generally static with respect to policy. However, large cyber physical systems such as industrial controls have various operating modes (start-up, normal operation, emergency, shut-down and maintenance are typical). The policy enforcement architecture must be able to support changes in access permissions as the mode of the control system changes. For example an operator’s role may not allow the operator to shut down a pump during “normal operation” but that same operator role may be given permission to shut down the pump if the refinery transitions to “emergency” mode. The effectiveness of the approach was validated by applying it to the Experion Process Knowledge System. This is a large commercial industrial control system often used to control oil refineries and other assets within the oil and gas sector. As a by-product, other industries using Experion (Pharmaceuticals, Specialty Chemicals, etc.) also benefit from increased security. Policies representative of those that would be used within an oil refinery were created and validated against the RBAC model as implemented in the underlying SQL database. The administration of policy is simplified which in turn makes it practical for security administrators to specify policies which enforce least privilege. The result is a qualitative reduction in risk. The benefits of the enhanced RBAC model are clear and as a result. Honeywell is incorporating portions of the RBAC research into the 2014 release of Experion.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗

DOE OSTI2017

Role-based access control permissions

Devices, systems, and methods for role-based access control permissions are disclosed. One method includes a policy decision point that receives up-to-date security context information from one or more outside sources to determine whether to grant access for a data client to a portion of the system and creates an access vector including the determination; receiving, via a policy agent, a request by the data client for access to the portion of the computing system by the data client, wherein the policy agent checks to ensure there is a session established with communications and user/application enforcement points; receiving, via communications policy enforcement point, the request from the policy agent, wherein the communications policy enforcement point determines whether the data client is an authorized node, based upon the access vector received from the policy decision point; and receiving, via the user/application policy enforcement point, the request from the communications policy enforcement point.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2018

Hydropower Operations in the Colorado River Basin: Institutional Analysis of Opportunities and Constraints

The Colorado River Basin is facing an unprecedented drought. In ongoing drought management efforts, limited attention has been paid to hydropower generation. While some studies do exist on hydropower, they are quantitative in nature and focus on calculating the reduction in megawatts generated at dams in the Basin with declining water availability. These studies simplify the complex process of hydropower generation; water availability is but one factor that impacts hydropower generation. At a more fundamental level, formal institutional arrangements, that is, laws, policies, and rules create the framework within which dams are operated and hydropower is generated. This paper conducts a comparative institutional analysis of water, environment, and energy laws and policies and changes therein to understand the constraints and opportunities faced by hydropower generation in the Colorado River Basin. To tease out the nuances in how institutional arrangements affect dam operations and hydropower generation, the comparative analysis focuses on the two largest and strategically important dams in the Basin: Hoover and Glen Canyon. This paper uses Elinor Ostrom’s Institutional Analysis and Development Framework to analyze laws and policies at three levels: constitutional-choice, collective-choice, and operational levels. Constitutional-choice level laws and policies apply to the entire Basin, whereas collective-choice level and operational level laws and policies are dam specific. Hoover and Glen Canyon Dams face similar biophysical challenges by the virtue of their location in the same river basin. Yet, despite the similarity in the biophysical setting, the analysis in this study finds that the differences in the applicability of constitutional-choice level laws along with the differences in dam specific collective-choice and operational level institutional arrangements produce a distinct set of constraints for hydropower generation at Hoover and Glen Canyon Dams. Even without a drought, water and environmental laws at both the constitutionalchoice and collective-choice levels as well as power contracts constrain hydropower generation and limit the flexibility with which Glen Canyon Dam can be operated. Water and environmental laws also impose specific water release requirements that, at times, require off-peak power generation at Glen Canyon Dam. On the other hand, even with a drought, Hoover Dam faces limited hydropower generation constraints and can operate flexibly. This is because constitutional-choice level laws and dam-specific collective-choice and operational level laws pose limited constraints for flexible daily operations at Hoover. The result is that Hoover Dam can generate hydropower at the same level as it did three decades ago and operate flexibly to provide ancillary services and peaking generation. While water and environmental laws and policies pose constraints for hydropower generation, the analysis in this study further finds that specific historic provisions within energyrelated institutional arrangements and recent changes within power contracts have maintained and even enhanced the value of hydropower to power customers. Historic institutional provisions ensure that hydropower is sold ‘at cost’ making this resource economically competitive with wholesale electricity market rates. Recent power contract modifications have resulted in the amendment of an older resale prohibition clause to expand the flexibility available to power customers in using their capacity and/or energy allocation in RTOs, ISOs, and bulk power markets. This amendment has opened up an opportunity for customers, especially Hoover power customers, to use flexible generation and ancillary services in a market environment. In addition, the extension of power contract duration to the legally maximum term has enhanced the reliability and stability of this resource for customers. In the Colorado River Basin, despite the enduring economic responsibility of power customers—where laws require customers to pay for a large portion of construction and O&M costs whether or not they actually receive hydropower— the persistent threat of a drought-induced water shortage, and constraints imposed by water and environmental laws and policies, power customers continue to invest in this resource as energy-related institutional arrangements and power contract provisions protect the reasons why they value hydropower. Lastly, the analysis in this study finds that the consequences of changes in hydropower generation for energy users, irrigators, and environmental programs in the Basin depend on how specific institutional arrangements tie electricity revenues to irrigation aid and environmental programs, and how the power contracts themselves are set up. Collective-choice level institutional arrangements create a higher level of financial dependency of irrigation aid and environmental programs on electricity revenues in the Upper Basin—the legal subdivision of Colorado River where Glen Canyon Dam is located—compared to the Lower Basin—the legal subdivision of Colorado River where Hoover Dam is located. Therefore, changes in hydropower generation or the way its revenue is collected and used will have far reacting detrimental consequences for the Upper Basin. Likewise, differences in the nature of power contracts for Glen Canyon and Hoover Dams also creates differences in the financial impact incurred by energy users when there is a reduction in hydropower generation. While this study identifies the types of impacts on resource users as a result of specific institutional arrangements, the calculation of extent of impact warrants further attention. Hydropower in the United States is in a unique position today. The strategic importance of this resource for the nation’s electricity sector is rapidly growing even as its contribution to overall electricity generation remains fairly small. This strategic importance, however, is built hydropower’s ability to operate flexibly in order to support the integration of intermittent renewable generating sources and the expansion of electricity markets. As this study shows, such flexibility may not be available at certain plants not due to the lack of water availability but because of institutional constraints. Institutional arrangements may also require dam operators to first consider high priority water uses (such as irrigation or environmental needs), which in turn may limit the ability to generate hydropower when it is most valuable or useful. Engineering and quantitative models, such as production cost models, recognize policy constraints for hydropower operations but often inadequately capture or assume away such constraints in the models. A failure to account for policy constraints in these models runs the risk of inaccurate representation of the operational flexibility and capacity available at specific hydropower plants, which can result in over/underestimation of hydropower’s ability to support the integration of variable renewable resources and address grid reliability concerns. Against this background, this paper and the analysis herein serves as an example of how we can systematically identify institutional constraints (and opportunities) that influence the flexibility in not only generating electricity at specific dams but also using this hydropower once it is generated.

13 HYDRO ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2018

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Historical Perspectives of Very Low-Level Radioactive Waste - 18367

The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), in Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations Part 61 (10 CFR Part 61), 'Licensing Requirements for Land Disposal of Radioactive Waste', provides licensing procedures, performance objectives, and technical requirements for the issuance of licenses for the land disposal of low-level radioactive waste. Low-level radioactive waste is divided into four categories based on its potential risk and need for isolation. Class A is the lowest category of low-level radioactive waste and poses the least risk. A large percentage of Class A low-level waste contains very low radionuclide concentrations and does not pose a significant health and safety risk. In the current regulatory framework, this waste, referred to as low-activity or very low-level waste, is managed in the same manner as much more hazardous waste. In 1986 and 1990, as a result of the Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Amendments Act of 1985, the NRC issued the Below Regulatory Concern (BRC) policy statement. This policy statement established an implementation plan regarding the expeditious handling of rulemaking petitions 'to exempt specific radioactive waste streams from regulation due to the presence of radionuclides in sufficiently low concentrations or quantities as to be below regulatory concern.' The BRC policy statement provided a consistent risk framework when considering regulatory exemption decisions, such as: (1) the release for unrestricted public use of lands and structures containing residual radioactivity; (2) the distribution of consumer products containing small amounts of radioactive material; (3) the disposal of very low-level radioactive waste at other than licensed disposal sites; and (4) the recycling of slightly contaminated equipment and materials. Due to concerns with the BRC policy that were raised by Congress, the States, the public, and others, Congress enacted the Energy Policy Act of 1992, which revoked the NRC's 1986 and 1990 BRC policy statements and led to the NRC's formal withdrawal of the BRC policy in 1993. Stakeholders raised concerns on NRC's potential deregulation of radioactive material. Additionally, in March 2005, the NRC staff proposed a rule to amend 10 CFR Part 20, 'Standards for Protection Against Radiation,' to include radiological criteria for controlling the disposition of solid materials with very small amounts of residual radioactivity. The NRC staff also proposed a limited disposition approach for the disposition of solid material, limiting the release of solid material meeting a 0.01 milli-Sievert per year (mSv/yr) [1 milli-rem (mrem/yr)] dose criterion, from licensed control. In June 2005, the Commission disapproved publication of the proposed rule and deferred the rulemaking until a later time, stating that the NRC's existing approach of reviewing specific cases on an individual basis was fully protective of public health and safety. This rulemaking effort was discontinued by the Commission in 2016. Recently, several nuclear power plant licensees have announced early decommissioning of their facilities. Some stakeholders have expressed concerns about the capacity and disposal costs associated with using the four existing low-level waste disposal sites for very low levels of radioactive waste (i.e., waste at the low end of the Class A category). A more risk-informed, performance based approach to waste disposal would allow more flexibility in managing this waste commensurate with its risk and hazard. A new approach would also allow the NRC to align with international standards for this type of waste. The NRC is presently conducting a scoping study to identify the actions the agency should take to strengthen its regulatory framework for very low-level waste disposal. The Very Low-Level Waste (VLLW) scoping study will consider divergent stakeholder comments; lessons learned from the BRC policy statements and the proposed rule on radiological criteria for controlling the disposition of solid materials; and best practices of other countries with respect to VLLW disposal. The NRC will also engage other government agencies to discuss regulatory options for VLLW. This paper offers a historical overview of past NRC initiatives to manage the lower end of Class A waste in a manner that is risk informed and performance based. It examines previous endeavors and discusses the regulatory challenges that arose. It also addresses lessons learned and introduces NRC's current effort regarding very low-level radioactive waste disposal. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2021

Chapter 4: Wind Energy Politics and Economics

A new paradigm for wind energy policy is emerging that is driven by rapidly decreasing costs, increasing market share and the need for more energy system services provided by wind energy. Increased recognition of the diversity of policy needs, tailored to the conditions of each respective jurisdiction, is another significant aspect of this new paradigm. This evolving perspective has come about as onshore wind energy has become the most competitive technology for new energy production in many countries, reducing the need for direct financial support. Accordingly, while the need for wind energy policy support continues, it is becoming increasingly nuanced and focused on serving an array of social objectives associated with the broader evolution of the energy sector. In the future, successful wind energy policies will increasingly be related to creating enabling environments and adapting frameworks, as opposed to focusing on direct investment incentives alone. This reflects a fundamental shift in the perspectives and roles of policy-makers. This is the focus of this chapter, in which we first provide an overview of the state of the art in wind energy policy, followed by upcoming policy challenges and research needs. We conclude with our perspective on the future focus of wind energy policy research.

policy↗

DOE OSTI2022

Transparency crucial to Paris climate scenarios—Response

King et al. raise important issues, several of which pertain to the broader policy discourse surrounding international climate negotiations and countries’ cli-mate pledges rather than the modeling conducted in our Policy Forum. We agree with King et al. that the updated Paris Agreement pledges could paint an overly optimistic picture of the future, especially if their success depends on postponing deeper reductions until after 2030. To illustrate a less-optimistic future, our Policy Forum includes scenarios showing what would happen if countries continued to implement current policies alone. Importantly, the “Current policy” scenarios in the Policy Forum result in less than a 10% chance of limiting global warming to below 2°C this century, whereas the “Updated pledges” scenarios result in at least a 33% chance of achieving the same temperature goal. Additional policy measures could help bridge emission gaps between current policies, updated pledges, and the global emission levels needed to cost-effectively achieve the Paris Agreement’s climate goals (1).

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

NASA NTRS1985

Implicit dual control for general stochastic systems

A new implicit dual technique is presented for stochastic adaptive control synthesis. In this technique, denoted as the method of utility costs (MOUC), a new control policy is derived from a known starting control policy by using a single iteration in time-varying policy space. An important result is that the new control policy yields a corresponding improvement in adaptive performance relative to the known starting policy. Since the starting policy can be chosen arbitrarily, the new policy has potentially superior performance relative to any existing design. Unlike other implicit dual designs, the MOUC can be applied to systems having constrained inputs, discontinuities, discrete valued disturbances, as well as in situations where the variances of the associated process statistics are large. A numerical example is given in which a controller is synthesized to provide improved performance relative to the Open-Loop Feedback policy of Dreyfus.

Bayard, D. S.↗

NASA NTRS1986

Dynamic remapping of parallel computations with varying resource demands

A large class of computational problems is characterized by frequent synchronization, and computational requirements which change as a function of time. When such a problem must be solved on a message passing multiprocessor machine, the combination of these characteristics lead to system performance which decreases in time. Performance can be improved with periodic redistribution of computational load; however, redistribution can exact a sometimes large delay cost. We study the issue of deciding when to invoke a global load remapping mechanism. Such a decision policy must effectively weigh the costs of remapping against the performance benefits. We treat this problem by constructing two analytic models which exhibit stochastically decreasing performance. One model is quite tractable; we are able to describe the optimal remapping algorithm, and the optimal decision policy governing when to invoke that algorithm. However, computational complexity prohibits the use of the optimal remapping decision policy. We then study the performance of a general remapping policy on both analytic models. This policy attempts to minimize a statistic W(n) which measures the system degradation (including the cost of remapping) per computation step over a period of n steps. We show that as a function of time, the expected value of W(n) has at most one minimum, and that when this minimum exists it defines the optimal fixed-interval remapping policy. Our decision policy appeals to this result by remapping when it estimates that W(n) is minimized. Our performance data suggests that this policy effectively finds the natural frequency of remapping. We also use the analytic models to express the relationship between performance and remapping cost, number of processors, and the computation's stochastic activity.

Nicol, D. M.↗

DOE OSTI2013

The mediation of environmental assessment's influence: What role for power?

Considerable empirical research has been conducted on why policy tools such as environmental assessment (EA) often appear to have 'little effect' (after Weiss) on policy decisions. This article revisits this debate but looks at a mediating factor that has received limited attention to-date in the context of EA - political power. Using a tripartite analytical framework, a comparative analysis of the influence and significance of power in mediating environmental policy integration is undertaken. Power is analysed, albeit partially, through an exploration of institutions that underpin social order. Empirically, the research examines the case of a new approach to policy-level EA (essentially a form of Strategic Environmental Assessment) developed by the World Bank and its trial application to urban environmental governance and planning in Dhaka mega-city, Bangladesh. The research results demonstrate that power was intimately involved in mediating the influence of the policy EA approach, in both positive (enabling) and negative (constraining) ways. It is suggested that the policy EA approach was ultimately a manifestation of a corporate strategy to maintain the powerful position of the World Bank as a leading authority on international development which focuses on knowledge generation. Furthermore, as constitutive of an institution and reflecting the worldviews of its proponents, the development of a new approach to EA also represents a significant power play. This leads us to, firstly, emphasise the concepts of strategy and intentionality in theorising how and why EA tools are employed, succeed and fail; and secondly, reflect on the reasons why power has received such limited attention to-date in EA scholarship. - Highlights: Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Conducts empirical research on the neglected issue of power. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Employs an interpretation of power in which it is viewed as a productive phenomenon. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Analyses the influence of power in the trial application of a new approach to policy environmental assessment. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Demonstrates the importance of power dynamics in understanding the successes and failures of environmental assessment.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2013

Monitoring and evaluation of green public procurement programs

Effective procurement policies can help governments save considerable amounts of money while also reducing energy consumption. Additionally, private sector companies which purchase large numbers of energy-consuming devices can benefit from procurement policies that minimize life-cycle energy costs. Both public and private procurement programs offer opportunities to generate market-transforming demand for energy efficient appliances and lighting fixtures. In recent years, several governments have implemented policies to procure energy efficient products and services. When deploying these policies, efforts have focused on developing resources for implementation (guidelines, energy efficiency specifications for tenders, life cycle costing tools, training, etc.) rather than defining monitoring systems to track progress against the set objectives. Implementation resources are necessary to make effective policies; however, developing Monitoring and Evaluation (M and E) mechanisms are critical to ensure that the policies are effective. The purpose of this article is to provide policy makers and procurement officials with a preliminary map of existing approaches and key components to monitor Energy Efficient Procurement (EEP) programs in order to contribute to the improvement of their own systems. Case studies are used throughout the paper to illustrate promising approaches to improve the M and E of EEP programs, from the definition of the system or data collection to complementary instruments to improve both the monitoring response and program results.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Implication of production tax credit on economic dispatch for electricity merchants with storage and wind farms

The production tax credit (PTC) promotes wind energy development, reduces power generation costs, and can affect merchants’ joint economic dispatch, particularly for electricity merchants with both energy storage and wind farms. Two common PTC policies are studied – in the first policy, a wind farm receives PTC by selling wind generation to the market and its storage can be used to store energy from the wind generation and energy purchased from the grid but the energy released from the storage cannot receive PTC; in the second policy, the energy released from the storage can also qualify for PTC but purchasing energy from the grid is not allowed. We then employ dynamic programming to study merchants' optimal decision-making while considering PTC and the physical characteristics of storage systems. We analytically show that the state of charge (SOC) range can be segmented into different regions by SOC reference points under two PTC policies. The merchant's optimal action can be conveniently and uniquely determined based on the region within which the current SOC falls. Moreover, this study illustrates that PTC could substantially alter the optimal scheduling policy structures by affecting reference points and their relationships. The results showed that the frequencies for charging and discharging storage decisions decreased with an increase in PTC subsidy. Last, we confirm that, although the first policy allows merchants to buy electricity from the market, the second policy can bring more profits when the PTC is large at the current PTC rates. Furthermore, the findings can provide multistage decision-making guidance to electricity merchants in the wholesale power market.

17 WIND ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2023

Contribution of carbon pricing to meeting a mid-century net zero target

A mid-century net zero target creates a challenge for reducing the emissions of emissions-intensive, trade-exposed sectors with high cost mitigation options. These sectors include aluminium, cement, chemicals, iron and steel, lime, pulp and paper and petroleum refining. Available studies agree that decarbonization of these sectors is possible by mid-century if more ambitious policies are implemented soon. Existing carbon pricing policies have had limited impact on the emissions of these sectors because their marginal abatement costs almost always exceed the tax rate or allowance price. But emissions trading systems with free allowance allocations to emissions-intensive, trade-exposed sectors have minimized the adverse economic impacts and associated leakage. Internationally coordinated policies are unlikely, so implementing more ambitious policies creates a risk of leakage. This paper presents policy packages a country can implement to accelerate emission reduction by these sectors with minimal risk of leakage. To comply with international trade law the policy packages differ for producers whose goods compete with imports in the domestic market and producers whose goods are exported. Carbon pricing is a critical component of each package due its ability to minimize the risk of adverse economic impacts on domestic industry, support innovation and generate revenue. The revenue can be used to assist groups adversely impacted by the domestic price and production changes due to carbon pricing and to build public support for the policies.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2014

Biomass Scenario Model Scenario Library: Definitions, Construction, and Description

Understanding the development of the biofuels industry in the United States is important to policymakers and industry. The Biomass Scenario Model (BSM) is a system dynamics model of the biomass-to-biofuels system that can be used to explore policy effects on biofuels development. Because of the complexity of the model, as well as the wide range of possible future conditions that affect biofuels industry development, we have not developed a single reference case but instead developed a set of specific scenarios that provide various contexts for our analyses. The purpose of this report is to describe the scenarios that comprise the BSM scenario library. At present, we have the following policy-focused scenarios in our library: minimal policies, ethanol-focused policies, equal access to policies, output-focused policies, technological diversity focused, and the point-of-production- focused. This report describes each scenario, its policy settings, and general insights gained through use of the scenarios in analytic studies.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2013

Energy-efficient Public Procurement: Best Practice in Program Delivery

This document illustrates the key issues and considerations involved in implementing energy-efficient public procurement. Our primary sources of information have been our partners in the Super Efficient Equipment and Appliance Deployment (SEAD) Initiative Procurement Working Group. Where applicable, we have highlighted specific ways in which working group participants have successfully overcome barriers to delivering effective programs. The following key points emerge from this analysis of programs for energy-efficient public procurement. Lessons for both developed and developing programs are highlighted throughout the guide. 1. Policy: Policy provides the initiative to begin a transition from first cost to life-cycle cost based purchasing methods and culture. Effective policy is well-communicated, establishes accountability from top to bottom of organizations and simplifies the processes necessary to comply. Flexibility and responsiveness are essential in policy development and implementation. Mandatory and voluntary policies may complement one another. 2. Procurement Criteria: Procurement staff must be confident that energy-efficient procurement criteria offer the best long-term value for their organization’s money and represent real environmental gains. Involving multiple stakeholders at the early stages of the criteria creation process can result in greater levels of cooperation from private industry. Criteria should make comparison of products easy for purchasers and require minimal additional calculations. Criteria will need to be regularly updated to reflect market developments. 3. Training: Resources for the creation of training programs are usually very limited, but well-targeted training is necessary in order for a program to be effective. Training must emphasize a process that is efficient for purchasers and simplifies compliance. Purchaser resources and policy must be well designed for training to be effective. Training program development is an excellent opportunity for collaboration amongst public authorities. 4. Procurement Processes: Many tools and guides intended to help buyers comply with energy-efficient procurement policy are designed without detailed knowledge of the procurement process. A deeper understanding of purchasing pathways allows resources to be better directed. Current research by national and international bodies aims to analyze purchasing pathways and can assist in developing future resources.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2016

Analytic framework for the United States cyber deterrence strategy. Final draft, 2nd submission (20 May 2015]

If the United States (U.S.) government allows cyberattacks to continue on their current trajectory of increased frequency and effect, the bonds holding our society together will be jeopardized, potentially impacting the survival of our society as we know it. Actions must be taken not only to defend against, but also to deter future cyberattacks. To achieve a credible and actionable U.S. Cyber Deterrence Strategy, the following three lines of effort are recommended for implementation by the White House: 1. Add a sixth priority to the Obama Administration's current cyberspace priorities to state: "Advance our cyber response policies and capabilities to further protect the country's national interests by deterring attacks within cyberspace." 2. Adopt the proposed Cyber Deterrence Analytic Framework as a guide for policy makers to use when determining the appropriate response to a cyberattack. 3. Implement the proposed Presidential Policy Directive outlining the United States' deterrence policy for cyber. These recommendations for establishing a U.S. Cyber Deterrence Strategy address the following key findings: As the U.S. private sector owns and operates over 90% of all of the networks and infrastructure of cyberspace, an effective policy must be communicated clearly across the government, business enterprise, and most importantly, to the people; More so than any time in our nation's history, individuals, companies, and organizations depend on cyberspace for uses ranging from social interactions to sustaining democracy; Threats existing within the cyber domain have grown both in attack vector complexity and societal impact; and, The current Presidential Executive Orders and Policy Directives related to cyber deterrence do not include a strategy for deterring attacks. The concepts presented in this paper were derived from interviews with experts in subjects ranging from deterrence philosophy, nuclear weapons implementation, U.S. cyber operations, and U.S. cyber policy. In addition, theories on deterrence strategies are explored, ranging from the 1960s to present to develop a deterrence strategy unique to cyber. Lastly, recent examples of cyberattacks are examined to provide evidence for the need to establish consequences for those individuals or countries that continue to behave nefariously within cyberspace. To form a strong foundation for a U.S. Cyber Deterrence Strategy, the U.S. must establish and clearly articulate the consequences for nations or individuals if they choose to initiate a cyberattack on the U.S. or its national interests.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2023

Opportunities for green hydrogen production with land-based wind in the United States

Hydrogen (H 2 ) is an efficient energy carrier and storage mechanism that can supply both stationary and transport energy demand. Rapidly declining renewable energy generation costs; technology innovations in wind, solar, battery storage, and electrolysis; and a global push for more sustainable and secure energy have driven increased interest in green H 2 production. In this study, we develop an H 2 scenario analysis tool to assist in rapid, high-resolution insights into future, green H 2 pathways to achieve policy goals and market competitiveness. Using this tool, we estimate H 2 production and costs for U.S., off-grid scenarios given varying policy and cost scenarios from 2025–2035. Results indicate that achieving economically competitive green H 2 production (below $\$$2/kg) is possible in 2030 with no policy incentives (one site achieves this target), while increasing policy support to include wind and green H 2 production tax credits enables widespread economic viability sooner, with sub-$\$$2/kg LCOH targets achieved by 2025 and 51.7% of sites achieving this target by 2035. Maximizing policy support through prevailing wage and apprenticeship credit multipliers enable widespread economic viability, including sub-$\$$2/kg of green H 2 by 2025 and even negative pricing by 2035. Regions with lowest LCOH values correspond to high wind resource areas and capacity factors. Achieving decarbonization goals with green H 2 depends on technology cost reductions and policy support, with a maximum average LCOH reduction of $\$$23.10 between no and maximum policy support scenarios, and a maximum average LCOH reduction of $\$$25.86 between current, conservative technology costs and 2035 projected technology cost assumptions.

08 HYDROGEN↗