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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

DEEPER: An Intergrated Platform for Deeper Roots

Crops with deeper roots would have multiple benefits, including better drought tolerance, reduced requirement for nitrogen fertilizer, and better sequestration of atmospheric CO 2 . DEEPER is an integrated platform of phenomic, genomic, and in silico technologies to generate maize lines with deeper roots. DEEPER is: LEADER (Leaf Elemental Accumulation from Deep Roots) is a breakthrough technology to nondestructively measure rooting depth by using the plant itself as a sensor. LEADER uses handheld X-ray Fluorescence spectrometry to quantify foliar accumulation of elements that are differentially distributed in the soil profile. LEADER is nondestructive and is orders of magnitude cheaper, faster, and more precise than any competing assay of rooting depth in the field. LEADER is able to distinguish deep-rooted from shallow-rooted maize lines in the field without the need for costly and noisy soil coring. RootRobot/DIRT3D, to automatically phenotype root architecture in any field, combining RootRobot, a mechatronics platform to excavate, clean, section, and image mature root crowns, with DIRT3D, software to quantify architectural traits in 3D. Anatomics, a high-throughput platform to phenotype root anatomy, combining LAT 2.0, a technology for 3D imaging of root anatomy and composition, with RootScan3D, software to automatically extract 3D anatomical and cell wall composition metrics from LAT 2.0 output. Using this platform we discovered two novel root traits, parenchyma cell wall thickness and multiseriate cortical sclerenchyma, that improve rooting depth and drought tolerance in maize and wheat. OpenSimRoot/Deep, software to simulate root interaction with hard subsoils. Using this platform we discovered novel concepts regarding how to increase crop rooting depth by modulating how individual root axes respond to hard soil. DeepGenes, a toolkit of genes, parent lines, and genomic selection strategies to enable breeding hybrids with deeper roots. We discovered 3 novel root genes that increase rooting depth in maize and wheat. DEEPER discovered novel root phenotypes for deeper rooting, and delivered validated ideotypes for deeper-rooted maize; novel technologies to rapidly assess root depth, root architecture and anatomy in field-grown plants; novel software tools for root modeling and 3D image analysis of root architecture and anatomy; and validated genes and genomic selection models to deploy traits for deeper rooting in maize breeding. Each DEEPER technology is transformative in its own right, and exceeds existing technologies. They are mutually synergistic, deployable for field-grown plants, and are ready for application. The phenotyping and modeling technologies are readily applicable to many crops, and genetic leads in maize may have utility in other grasses. Taken as a whole they represent a transformative platform to develop deeper-rooted crops, with greater drought tolerance, reduced fertilizer requirement, and greater carbon sequestration.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Quantifying Capital Cost Reduction Pathways for Advanced Nuclear Reactors

The framework developed in this study is provided both as an excel sheet (https://inl.gov/content/uploads/2023/11/Nuclear-Reactor-Cost-Reduction-Pathway-Spreadsheet-Tool.xlsx) and a Python (Jupyter) Notebook (link: https://github.com/accert-dev/ACCERT/tree/main/Cost%20Reduction). Capital cost considerations are one of the primary inhibitors to the large-scale deployment of nuclear power plants. While it is widely accepted that first units will likely be expensive and relatively uncompetitive, it is reasonable to expect that subsequent units, built in relative quick succession, will be cheaper as they benefit from the so-called “learning effects”. However, the large degree of uncertainty associated with this parameter renders it challenging for first movers to invest in the first few expensive units. To resolve this impasse, the U.S. Department of Energy’s Advanced Nuclear Liftoff study advocated for the formation of large, committed order books of plants of the same technology to spread the costs across several units and kickstart the nuclear supply chain. The study also advocated best practices for avoiding overruns and keeping reactors on budget. This report builds on these key recommendations by attempting to quantify specific pathways toward cost reduction for nuclear energy. A capital cost estimation framework was built to untangle the effect of learning into a subset of key cost drivers, referred to as “levers”. Collectively, the choice of these levers is intended to reflect the decision-making of high-level stakeholders like plant owners and the government. In addition to the size of the firm orderbook, these levers included (a) cost drivers that are most often attributed to cost overruns such as architect/engineering (A/E) proficiency, construction proficiency, procurement service proficiency, design completion prior to the start of construction, and design maturity, and (b) cost reduction strategies such as modular construction, cross-site standardization, safety classification of the reactor building, and of the balance of plant. Two advanced reactor designs were leveraged as use cases and bottom-up cost estimates made with assumptions consistent with a well-executed first-of-a-kind project (WE-FOAK, i.e., almost no overruns) were used as baselines for the models. Cost correlations were surveyed from the literature to determine the impact of important variables on projected timelines and costs.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Potential Disposition Options for a Salt Fueled Molten Salt Reactor At the INL (A White Paper)

The molten salt reactor (MSR) design concept has been the focus of significant research and development efforts, both in the U.S. and around the world. There are generally two types of MSRs, salt fueled MSRs that have the fuel dissolved within the salt and solid fueled MSRs that only use the molten salt as a coolant. The range of conceptual designs and the flexibility of operations of MSRs results in a wide range of potential waste streams from salt fueled MSRs; all of which require safe and secure storage and eventual disposition. This white paper will 1) survey the range of salt fueled MSR designs, 2) recognize the implications of design, on the resulting waste streams, and 3) identify the definitions and regulations that apply to the safe and secure management, storage, and disposal of these streams. Research in MSR waste streams is young and the focus of intense research that requires more funding and time to become mature enough to fully support design decisions. Once a specific design is selected, a more detailed management and disposition effort must be performed.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2022

“Innervated” Pipelines: A New Technology Platform for In-Situ Repair and Embedded Intelligence

The overall vision pursued under the project would ultimately enable capability for real-time operational monitoring of natural gas (and other) pipeline infrastructures through the combination of in-situ repair and rehabilitation methods with embedded fiber optic sensing and associated data analytics methods and platform tools. Benefits to the public include more resilient and robust natural gas pipeline infrastructures with the potential to expand the applications of developed technologies under the program to other important areas of critical energy infrastructure in the future such as H2 pipelines and infrastructure, municipal and other civil infrastructure, as well as subsurface oil, gas, and geothermal infrastructure applications. The program has successfully demonstrated feasibility for all of the critical enabling elements and serves as a foundation for future technology maturation, deployment, and customization for other potential applications and high-priority needs into the future. Several underlying innovations have shown potential for commercial deployment and are the subject of continued development and technology transfer based upon patents submitted during the project duration.

02 PETROLEUM↗
DOE OSTI2024

Virtual Synchronous Machine Grid-Forming Inverter Model Specification (REGFM_B1)

This report describes a generic virtual synchronous machine (VSM) grid-forming inverter (GFM) model - REGFM_B1. The initial model specification was proposed by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), General Electric (GE), and Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). Siemens Gamesa Renewable Energy (SGRE) also provided inputs to the specification. The model specification has been revised multiple times based on the discussions between all the contributors listed in this report. This work was funded by the Universal Interoperability for Grid-Forming Inverters (UNIFI) Consortium. This generic model is developed to help the utility industry understand the concept of VSM GFMs. The model could be used to represent equipment for long-term planning studies where vendor-specific models are not available. As equipment mature and improve, generic models will be updated to capture the new functionalities of GFMs. It is not intended that these models will always remain representative of all future GFM technologies.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2024

Women as a force multiplier for bringing nuclear forensic capabilities to the international stage

In 2009, the U.S. Department of Energy / National Nuclear Security Administration’s (DOE/NNSA) Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation (DNN) Program initiated a new nuclear forensics outreach effort under its Confidence Building Measures Program. Little did they know that the timing could not have been better. This article focuses on the early years (2009-2015) of the NNSA’s international nuclear forensics outreach, specifically the efforts and experiences of the women who helped establish this program, building it from a fledgling bilateral effort into an enduring technical capacity provider engaging with dozens of countries and multilateral organizations. At the onset of the program, nuclear forensics was an emerging priority within the U.S. Government and receiving increased focus from international organizations through high-level diplomatic efforts such as the Nuclear Security Summit and Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism. Additionally, working-level initiatives were gaining traction through the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Forensics International Technical Working Group. Over the next six years, a small team comprised of a uniquely large number of women NNSA federal, contract, and national laboratory staff served as key leaders engaging with the international community to strengthen global technical nuclear forensics capacity and best practices. The program continues today under the Nuclear Smuggling Detection and Deterrence Program as Investigation Support. The experiences shared here detail a unique time period when the new technical discipline of nuclear forensics was beginning to mature and gain international traction. The authors have made every effort to remember history correctly and be as inclusive as possible. A wealth of training, guidance, and exercises documentation was developed in the 2009-2015 timeframe, much of which still serves as the foundation for today’s even more extensive program and community of dedicated technical and diplomatic practitioners.

98 NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT, SAFEGUARDS, AND PHYSICAL P↗
DOE OSTI2024

Leveraging Existing Assets for Long Duration Energy Storage

Increased renewables penetration to electrical grid is necessary to reduce overall emissions from the electrical power generation sector. Nonetheless, its integration creates challenges to grid operators who must match the power being generated by intermittent renewables and other traditional energy sources with the demand from consumers, while ensuring the reliability and power quality for the entire system. Energy storage has been proposed as an alternative to natural gas peaking plants and a form to deliver excess renewable energy generation at times of peak demand. For energy storage to provide benefits to end customers (energy consumers), it must be reliable, efficient, and cost effective. The Illinois Sustainable Technology Center (ISTC), one of the surveys that integrate the Prairie Research Institute (PRI), aims to develop a Center for Energy Storage at Existing Assets (CESEA) at UIUC with the participation of Waste Pressure Corp and Ecotek Engineering USA LLC. CESEA will focus on LDES systems that can integrate to existing infrastructure in a manner that reduces the initial capital expenditure and demonstrates the ability to repurpose fossil assets that would otherwise become stranded, to serve the energy transition. CESEA aims to leverage UIUC’s unique facilities to validate LDES systems performance at a relevant operating environment. UIUC’s facilities include a 85-MW combined heat and power (CHP) power plant, two (2) solar PV plants totaling over 18 MWdc of installed capacity, an electrical grid along with a substation at transmission and distribution voltages, a 22-mile gas pipeline network operating at two pressure levels, along with steam and chilled water distribution networks. The new LDES systems will connect to the existing UIUC grid through a new test electrical station, which will have the capacity to accommodate additional connections to test new devices and technologies as part of future CESEA R&D activities. The test electrical station will contain meters, instrumentation, and controls to accurately capture data and allow optimization of control algorithms. CESEA will initially focus on technologies that: i) utilize existing equipment or facilities to perform at least one of the process steps in LDES (charging, storage, or discharging), ii) leverage mature or commercially available components or controls, iii) show potential for cost-leadership in 10+ hour storage at a commercial scale. Initial technologies that were identified to meet these criteria include Compressed Gas Energy Storage (CGES), and TES. CGES stores electricity by raising the pressure of a compressible gas inside a control volume and converting the stored energy to electricity via expansion-generation. CGES is a generalization of CAES that covers any working gas (not just air). A successful CGES demo will help to circumvent many challenges faced by CAES (long development times due to site prospecting, high cost of compression and storage, heat recovery management, etc.) by: 1) utilizing existing infrastructure (compressors, pipelines, underground storage or pressure vessels) used in the transportation and storage of industrial gases for LDES charging and storage; 2) deploying over sites already-developed for industrial applications with minor additional work; 3) leveraging the price structure of commercial industrial gas to cover the costs of electricity used during charging. A previous DOE-sponsored conceptual study (DE-FE-0032018) estimated the levelized cost of energy of a 1.1 MW / 17 MWh CGES system at $0.08/kWh, with a commercial 10x scale system cost estimated at <$0.04/kWh (Giardinella, 2022). The pilot-sized system was estimated to avoid up to 2693 tons of CO2/year.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Optimization of Spirulina for biomanufacturing and the delivery of protein therapeutics

Lumen Bioscience has developed a novel cyanobacterial platform that enormously decreases the cost of pharmaceuticals used to prevent and treat illnesses. Arthrospira platensis (spirulina), is a photosynthetic microorganism that has been consumed as a dietary supplement for centuries in part because of its high protein content. Commercial cultivation operations have matured over the last 50 years to allow large-scale cultivation in outdoor ponds. Lumen recently discovered methods that transform this commercially important cyanobacterium into a genetically tractable platform for bioengineering. The high protein accumulation in spirulina makes it an ideal chassis for heterologous protein expression, and centuries of safe human consumption suggest its utility as an administration vehicle for biologic drugs. Lumen can express a broad range of recombinant proteins in spirulina and has developed manufacturing processes and strains to mucosally deliver bioactive proteins to treat and/or prevent disease. For example, Lumen has produced an oral cocktail of dried whole-cell spirulina biomass, containing 3 toxin-neutralizing antibodies and 1 endolysin, that is efficacious in a preclinical in vivo models of C. difficile infection. Lumen has also demonstrated that intranasal administration of a spirulina-manufactured neutralizing antibody can prevent disease by a respiratory pathogen, SARS-CoV-2, in a hamster model. Lumen’s current pipeline includes therapeutics to treat or prevent C. difficile infection, COVID-19, inflammatory bowel disease, cardiometabolic disease, and traveler’s diarrhea. Lumen deploys strategies to maximize the expression of these therapeutics for optimal dose sizing, a key limiting factor with past food crop-based expression systems. Spirulina can express exogenous proteins at unusually high levels (>15% of dry weight) but reaching this maximum value requires optimization of multiple interacting factors. We describe our current statistics design of experiments approach that optimizes these factors with minimal replicates. This maximizes exogenous protein expression allowing Lumen to generate spirulina-based therapeutics for a rapidly expanding range of medical uses.

Heinnickel, Mark↗
DOE OSTI2023

Re-evaluating the Thermal-Spectrum Molten-Salt Breeder Reactor Fuel Cycle in a Modern Context

The current need to rapidly and substantially expand clean power production combined with limited capability for domestic uranium enrichment results in a U.S. nuclear power production planning environment similar to that of the first nuclear era. The U.S. thermal-spectrum molten-salt breeder reactor (TS-MSBR) program emerged during the first nuclear era as means to support rapid nuclear power expansion while minimizing demand on fissile resources. The primary reasons that the TS-MSBR program was discontinued in the 1970s were the comparatively large amount of required effort to mature its technology sufficiently for commercial deployment and the access to separated fissile material provided by the design of its integrated fuel cycle. The slowdown in U.S. electrical load growth after 1980 and the abundance of inexpensive fossil fuels inhibited reconsideration of TS-MSBR development for decades. The purpose of this discussion is to re-examine the value and technical challenges of TS-MSBRs with integrated fuel salt chemical processing considering the renewed need for rapid expansion of clean energy production worldwide, the current state of technology, the challenge of actinide wastes, and the continuing need to maintain a high degree of proliferation resistance and to integrate safeguards into the design.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2024

MARVEL Technical Overview: Breakdown of cost and scope growth through 90% Final Design

This report presents a breakdown of cost and scope growth for the Microreactor Applications Research Validation and Evaluation (MARVEL) project through the design phase, and includes observations, lessons learned, and the results from an independent project assessment. It presents the status and history of the project. Technology maturity is considered in high-level, qualitative comparison to other microreactor design efforts. Its purpose is to record MARVEL’s evolution and lessons learned from the planning and design phases through completion of 90% final design. Analyses included a detailed review of project cost, schedule, and periodic project reports and management documents. The Primary Coolant Apparatus Test (PCAT) is specifically highlighted. It was concluded that MARVEL would have benefited from more extensive planning early in the project to better define cost and schedule to provide more certainty in the total project cost and delivery date. Modest cost and schedule improvements may have been possible, but compared qualitatively, MARVEL’s total cost and schedule performance are consistent with that of other efforts currently underway. Better planning would have provided more certainty, improved risk mitigations, and potentially eliminated delays due to funding shortfalls. A recommended path forward is presented that addresses recommendations in the independent project assessment.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Overview of Quantum Sensing Materials and Techniques for Energy Sector Applications

The energy sector is dependent upon highly sensitive sensing devices for a wide range of applications. Variables such as temperature, pH, electromagnetic fields, and pressure must be measured with high precision, often in harsh conditions (e.g. high temperature, pressure and humidity). These sensors are deployed in infrastructure such as transformers, pipelines, mines, nuclear power plants, and other areas to ensure safe operating conditions and uninterrupted, optimized service. Moreover, new opportunities for sensors have emerged due to the expansion of smart grids/meters, driverless vehicles, and the discovery of new oil/gas deposits. The continued maturation of quantum sensors offers exciting opportunities for quantum-enhanced measurements to improve sensitivity beyond the classical limit. Here, an overview of established and emerging quantum materials and methods for sensing applications will be provided. Opportunities within the energy sector for quantum sensors will then be analyzed, including oil/gas discovery, greenhouse gas emission monitoring, pH and ion sensing, current measurements, and quantum-enhanced spectroscopy, along with barriers such as quantum sensor platform miniaturization and ruggedization. A specific project at the National Energy Technology Laboratory involving the functionalization of qubits using metal-organic frameworks for enhanced quantum sensing will then be highlighted. Here, nitrogen vacancy centers (NV) in nanodiamonds, a commercially available qubit with long coherence times and utilizable quantum properties at room temperature, are encapsulated using the metal-organic framework ZIF-8. Significantly, the ZIF-8 coating increases the longitudinal spin relaxation lifetime of the NV centers, an important parameter for spin relaxometry-based quantum sensing experiments. These results demonstrate the importance of qubit functionalization as a crucial step for rationally designing high performance quantum sensors.

Crawford, Scott↗
DOE OSTI2024

A Mid-Century Net-Zero Scenario for the State of Wyoming and its Economic Impacts

Clean hydrogen has the potential to help achieve 10% economy-wide emissions reductions by 2050 relative to 2005, promote energy security and resilience, and develop a new economy in the United States. In 2030, the hydrogen economy could create about 100,000 new jobs to build new capital projects and clean hydrogen infrastructure. The Wyoming Energy Authority recently announced the state’s energy strategy, which establishes a goal of net-zero emissions by 2050. Under all likely scenarios, achieving a mid-century net-zero target will pose challenges and create opportunities for Wyoming’s energy sector. If executed properly, the transition could favorably affect the state’s economy overall in the long term. This research program examines the economic impact of fossil energy production in Wyoming and provides various predictions for future energy mixes to achieve net-zero emissions. Preliminary work suggests that Wyoming-based hydrogen production could have significant economic benefits and job creation implications for Wyoming. This study further assesses Wyoming’s opportunities to create hydrogen-based industries, assess economic impacts, identify knowledge gaps and research needs, and create a Hydrogen Center of Excellence to accelerate commercialization and deployment. This project helped to understand Wyoming's areas of focus for research and development and identified its areas of strength and potential challenges in creating a hydrogen ecosystem. As a result of this study, we estimate that for blue hydrogen produced from coal and gas resources, the overall cost reduction will be driven mainly by the carbon-sequestration tax credit and the improvement in carbon capture. Mature technologies, like SMR and PSA, will make limited contributions. They have no or limited reductions from an additional capacity deployment in future costs. We also understand the importance of continued support from public and private sectors for Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)-related research, development, and demonstration programs at federal and state levels. The successful and efficient production of blue hydrogen requires a unique blend of energy resources, geology, regulation, law, and infrastructure. Wyoming has the distinction of meeting all these demands. The team also estimates that the availability and command of water resources accessible for hydrogen production are crucial for developing new projects. Water treatment, use, and disposal after treatment will also make projects possible. Primarily, this is relevant for hydrogen made using renewable energy. Wyoming has one of the best wind resource capacity in the nation. Harnessing this resource is challenging due to limited transmission line availability. Hydrogen could become one of the solutions to the stranded resource problem, primarily if the water availability challenge is addressed. Using produced oil & gas water could help to solve the problem. A commonly cited barrier to the expansion of hydrogen markets is the cost associated with constructing new pipelines, which typically require large amounts of capital to develop. Wyoming already possesses much of the export infrastructure needed to connect Wyoming’s hydrogen production with major markets across the West Coast, Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Front Range regions of the United States, where a large portion of Wyoming’s natural gas is already transported. In addition to transportation by pipeline, rail transportation of hydrogen has also proven feasible. Wyoming uses its extensive railway system to transport large amounts of coal to its export partners across the United States. By using cryogenic or compressed-gas cars, Wyoming has the potential to add hydrogen to its existing network of railroad energy exports. The same technology may also be applied to hydrogen transport via trucks traveling interstate highways. Wyoming’s workforce is ready to meet the demands of clean hydrogen development. Many of the skills and training needed for hydrogen production are the same skills already possessed by Wyoming’s oil & gas and coal workforce. Many government and industry leaders expect clean hydrogen and other low-carbon energy projects to generate significant job growth and to recruit many already-trained oil & gas and coal workers whose jobs may be displaced. As energy companies seek to penetrate the markets for Wyoming hydrogen production, there is a natural mutual benefit to Wyoming’s workers and companies seeking to launch projects with the assistance of a trained workforce. Wyoming’s university and community college system have adopted several programs to ensure that highly qualified engineers and other technically skilled employees continue to graduate with skills to support the development of hydrogen and other innovative energy projects moving forward. Throughout the project, stakeholder outreach and education took many forms, including meetings with several major companies in the industry, collaborating with local government organizations, educational organizations, and national laboratories, tribal outreach and engagement, the sponsoring of several hydrogen-focused projects in many departments throughout the University of Wyoming, and developing a collaboration with international universities. The products of these collaborations consist of working relationships with several companies in the industry, educational institutions, national labs, and local government, as well as strong connections with individuals who will play an essential role in the success of the Hydrogen Energy Research Center.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2021

Development of a Fast-Spectrum Self-Powered Neutron Detector for Molten Salt Experiments in the Versatile Test Reactor

Abstract—The self-powered neutron detector (SPND) is a widely used flux monitor in thermal nuclear reactors. Although this is a mature technology, the current state of the art is tuned for a thermal neutron spectrum, so many of the devices currently in use lack sensitivity to fast neutrons. Because current in SPNDs is produced through nuclear reactions with the neutron flux inside a reactor, sensitivity in SPNDs is determined by the neutron cross section of the neutron-sensitive portion of the detector, termed the emitter. This neutron cross section drops by orders of magnitude between thermal and fast neutron energies for many emitters in currently used SPNDs, with a corresponding drop in current from the detector. This paper discusses efforts to develop a fast-spectrum self-powered neutron detector (FS-SPND) that is sensitive to neutrons with energies ranging from 0.025 eV up to 1 MeV. An in-depth analysis of Evaluated Nuclear Data File (ENDF)/B-VII.1 neutron-capture cross sections was performed, and four new materials were identified that are suitable emitter candidates for use in measuring fast neutrons. All four materials are stable mid-shell nuclei in the region between doubly magic 132Sn and 208Pb. Each candidate was simulated with the Geant4 Monte Carlo simulation toolkit to optimize overall detector efficiency.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Assessment of Materials-Based Options for On-Board Hydrogen Storage for Rail Applications

The objective of this project was to evaluate material- and chemical-based solutions for hydrogen storage in rail applications as an alternative to high-pressure hydrogen gas and liquid hydrogen. Three use cases were assessed: yard switchers, long-haul locomotives, and tenders. Four storage options were considered: metal hydrides, nanoporous sorbents, liquid organic hydrogen carriers, and ammonia, using 700 bar compressed hydrogen as a benchmark. The results suggest that metal hydrides, currently the most mature of these options, have the highest potential. Storage in tenders is the most likely use case to be successful, with long-haul locomotives the least likely due to the required storage capacities and weight and volume constraints. Overall, the results are relevant for high-impact regions, such as the South Coast Air Quality Management District, for which an economical vehicular hydrogen storage system with minimal impact on cargo capacity could accelerate adoption of fuel cell electric locomotives. The results obtained here will contribute to the development of technical storage targets for rail applications that can guide future research. Moreover, the knowledge generated by this project will assist in development of material-based storage for stationary applications such as microgrids and backup power for data centers.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2023

Optimized Carbon Fiber Composites in Wind Turbine Blade Design: Follow-On Studies

This project has identified opportunities to bring further reductions in the mass and cost of modern wind turbine blades through the use of alternative material systems and manufacturing processes. The fiber reinforced polymer material systems currently used by the wind industry have stagnated as the technology continues to mature and as a means to reduce risk while introducing new products with continually increasing blade lengths. However, as blade lengths continue to increase, the challenge of controlling blade mass becomes even more critical to enabling the associated levelized cost of energy reductions. Stiffer and stronger reinforcement fibers can help to resolve the challenges of meeting the loading demands while limiting the increase in weight, but these materials are substantially more expensive than the traditional E-glass fiber systems. One goal of this project and associated work is to identify pathways that improve the cost-effectiveness of carbon fiber such that it is the reinforcement of choice in the primary structural elements of wind blades. The use of heavy-tow textile carbon fiber material systems has been shown to reduce the blade mass by 30-31% when used in the spar cap and by up to 7% when used in edgewise reinforcement. A pultrusion cost model was developed to enable a material cost comparison that includes an accurate estimate of the intermediate manufacturing step of pultrusion for the carbon fiber composite. Material cost reductions were revealed in most cases for the heavy-tow textile carbon fiber compared to infused fiberglass. The use of carbon fiber in the edgewise reinforcement produced the most notable material cost reduction of 33% for the heavy-tow textile carbon fiber. The mass and cost savings observed when using carbon fiber in edgewise reinforcement demonstrate a clear opportunity of this design approach. A carbon fiber conversion cost model was expanded to include a characterization of manufacturing costs when using advanced conversion processes with atmospheric plasma oxidation. This manufacturing approach was estimated to reduce the cost of carbon fiber material systems by greater than 10% and can be used with textile carbon systems or traditional carbon fiber precursors. The pultrusion cost model was also used to assess the opportunity for using pultruded fiberglass in wind blades, studying conventional E-glass fiber reinforcement. When using pultruded fiberglass as the spar cap material for two design classifications, the blade weight was reduced by 6% and 9% compared to infused fiberglass. However, due to the relatively large share of the pultrusion manufacturing cost compared to fiber cost, the spar cap material cost increased by 12% and 7%. When considering the system benefits of reduced blade mass and potentially lower blade manufacturing costs for pultruded composites, there may be opportunity for pultruded E-glass in wind blade spar caps, but further studies are needed. There is a clearer outcome for using pultruded fiberglass in the edgewise reinforcement where it resulted in a blade mass reduction of 2% and associated reinforcement material cost reduction of 1% compared to infused E-glass. The use of higher performing glass fibers, such as S-glass and H-glass systems, will produce greater mass savings but a study is needed to assess the cost implications for these more expensive systems. The most likely opportunity for these high-performance glass fibers is in the edgewise reinforcement, where the increased strength will reduce the damage accumulation of this fatigue-driven component. The blade design assessments in this project characterize the controlling material properties for the primary structural components in the flapwise and edgewise directions for modern wind blades. The observed trends with low and high wind speed turbine classifications for carbon and glass fiber reinforced polymer systems help to identify where cost reductions are needed, and where improvements in mechanical properties would help to reduce the material demands.

17 WIND ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

PACT Perovskite PV Module Outdoor Test Protocol (Version 0.1)

The purpose of this protocol is to define procedures and practices to be used by the PACT center for field testing of metal halide perovskite (MHP) photovoltaic (PV) modules. The protocol defines the physical, electrical, and analytical configuration of the tests and applies equally to mounting systems at a fixed orientation or sun tracking systems. While standards exist for outdoor testing of conventional PV modules, these do not anticipate the unique electrical behavior of perovskite cells. Further, the existing standards are oriented toward mature, relatively stable products with lifetimes that can be measured on the scale of years to decades. The state of the art for MHP modules is still immature with considerable sample to sample variation among nominally identical modules. Version 0.0 of this protocol does not define a minimum test duration, although the intent is for modules to be fielded for periods ranging for weeks to months. This protocol draws from relevant parts of existing standards, and where necessary includes modifications specific to the behavior of perovskites.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Polymer Additive Manufacturing for Marine Renewable Energy Applications: Best Practices, Research Trends, and Current Challenges

Additive manufacturing (AM) is a rapidly growing technology space, not only for prototyping, but is also becoming more feasible at larger scales and increasing component quantities. There are a large variety of AM processes and materials available to users and effectively applying those processes and materials to a specific use case can be challenging. One specific area where AM could be particularly beneficial is marine renewable energy (MRE). Not only is MRE a relatively nascent industry with a near-term need for rapid deployments and prototype testing, but developers could also see long-term benefits from the broad variety of environmentally resistant materials available and the ability to manufacture complex geometries that AM technologies offer. Over the past 4 years, AM materials have played an increasing role in the Advanced Materials project; a multi-year, multi-laboratory research project funded by the U.S. Department of Energy's Water Power Technologies Office, with the main goal of reducing barriers to the adoption of complex materials in the MRE industry. The primary focus of this project is to develop test methods and generate datasets to understand the long-term performance of advanced materials in marine environmental and address specific material challenges as they arise. This report provides an extensive overview of the research that has been performed specific to AM polymers as part of the Advanced Materials project. The intention of this document is to provide recommendations of best practices with regards to material selection, mechanical test method development, and design practices, lessons learned along the way, current research trends, and ongoing challenges with regards to AM polymers in marine environments. In particular, this report focuses on several key aspects: Material and process selection, Environmental conditioning and subsequent degradation quantification through mechanical characterization, Composite reinforcements on AM polymer substrates, Adhesion of instrumentation for mechanical characterization and loads measurements, Protective coatings for preventing biofouling and water ingress, Other MRE case studies where AM has proved particularly useful. Ultimately, we hope that the test methods that have been developed, data generated, and lessons learned from this research will be valuable to the MRE community (researchers and developers alike), as well as other industries, and can be used as a reference point as the respective MRE and AM industries continue to grow and mature.

16 TIDAL AND WAVE POWER↗
DOE OSTI2023

Nondestructive property and defect characterization using X-rays and neutrons

As advanced manufacturing (AM) continues to mature as a fabrication technique, interest in its use for the fabrication of nuclear components continues to grow. AM nuclear parts offer the ability to create parts with complex and non-standard geometries that cannot be produced using traditional manufacturing techniques, circumvention of supply chain issues, and reduction of time from design to implementation. However, components fabricated with AM techniques must undergo nondestructive examination (NDE) to ensure they are fabricated to the required specifications to ensure safe and proper operation. The Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Technologies (AMMT) program has undertaken initial exploratory studies on several NDE techniques to evaluate their feasibility for research and development (R&D), as well as Quality Assurance and Quality Control (QA/QC), and in-service inspections of AM parts. This work describes research results on several techniques, including X-ray and neutron tomography and scattering, as well as photothermal radiometry. The experimental results are described and an overview for each techniques’ potential use on AM parts in the various phases of part development and lifetime is given. Finally, future directions for technique development and application to AM nuclear components are described.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗