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At least 1,171 records · Page 65

Understanding Melting and Freezing/Solidification and the Associated Effects on Heat Transfer

Phase change (solid/liquid or liquid/vapor) is a process that enables a large heat transfer capacity for a broad range of engineering applications, such as steam generators, condensers, thermal energy storage, thermosyphons, and heat pipes. Water has been the most usable phase-change cooling medium. Advanced applications are proposing alkali metals (e.g., sodium, potassium, lithium) to increase the total heat transfer rate for moderate and high-temperature applications. Sodium and potassium have the advantage of relatively low melting temperatures (98 and 64°C, respectively) make them suitable for high-temperature applications (700–1100 K). At too high of temperatures (above 1200 K), lithium is an excellent choice as a working fluid because of its high latent heat vaporization and high-surface tension. The low vapor pressure of alkali metals makes them candidates for closed spaces applications, such as thermosyphons and heat pipes. Lithium has the lowest vapor pressure than potassium and sodium, which can work at a much higher temperature without over-pressurizing the container.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

Low cost cryostat

A cryostat for use in a low or a substantially gravity-free environment adapted to cool an experiment through the use of helium 2, or helium in its super fluid state is characterized by a number of interchangeable daughter dewars and helium supply or mother dewar. A low pressure venting system is provided for converting helium contained in the mother dewar to a superfluid state for use as a primary cryogen. Each daughter dewar is adapted to be removably mounted in mated relation on the mother dewar and is characterized by support for an experiment package, a source of helium to be employed as a secondary cryogen. A heat pipe is suspended from each daughter dewar and adapted to be extended into the mother dewar for facilitating cooling of the secondary cryogen. A transfer of heat from the package to the primary cryogen, via the secondary cryogen, is accommodated as a film flow of helium 2 progresses from the heat pipe to the experiment dewar.

Stephens, J. B.↗

Analysis of the Gas Particle Radiator (GPR)

The theoretical performance of a new space radiator concept, the gas particle radiator (GPR), is calculated. The GPR uses a gas containing emitting, submicron particles as the radiating media. A transparent window contains the gas particle mixture around the solid radiator emitting surface. A major advantage of the GPR is that large emissivity (e sub T is greater than or = 0.8) is achieved without the use of emissive coatings. A radiation heat transfer analysis shows that for a modest volume fraction (approx. 10(-4)) of submicron particles and gas thickness (approx. 1 cm) the emissivity, e sub T, is limited by the window transmittance. Besides determining the emissivity, the window is the critical element for making it possible for the GPR to have lower mass than a tube type radiator. The window acts as a bumper to provide meteoroid protection for the radiator wall. The GPR was compared to a proposed titanium wall, potassium heat pipe radiator. For both radiators operating at a power level of 1.01 MW at 775 K it was calculated that the GPR mass was 31 percent lower than the heat pipe radiator.

Chubb, D. L.↗

SP-100 high-temperature advanced radiator development

The development of an advanced radiator concept design meeting SP-100 thermoelectric requirements is reported. Carbon-carbon heat pipes are used to produce this lightweight, high-performance radiator. Two feasibility problems had to be solved to enable the design: the production of a carbon-carbon heat pipe tube with integral fins, and the development of a coating that protects the carbon-carbon substrate from 875-K potassium working fluid. Carbon-carbon tubes with integral fins were successfully produced using a T-300 fiber, an angle interlocking weave architecture, and pitch densification. A barrier coating to protect the inside diameter of these tubes which employed the CVD of niobium over a thin rhenium interlayer was developed. The rhenium interlayer proved to be critical to the success of this coating technique by providing a gradation in the coefficient of thermal expansion, carrying a portion of the induced stress load, improving coating adhesion, and providing a partial carbon diffusion barrier.

Rovang, Richard D.↗

Hardware Progress Made in the Early Flight Fission Test Facilities (EFF-TF) To Support Near-Term Space Fission Systems

The EFF-TF provides a facility to experimentally evaluate thermal hydraulic issues through the use of highly effective non-nuclear testing. These techniques provide a rapid, more cost effective method of evaluating designs and support development risk mitigation when concerns are associated with non-nuclear aspects of space nuclear systems. For many systems, electrical resistance thermal simulators can be used to closely mimic the heat deposition of the fission process, providing axial and radial profiles. A number of experimental and design programs were underway in 2004. Initial evaluation of the SAFE-100a (19 module stainless steel/sodium heat pipe reactor with integral gas neat exchanger) was performed with tests up to 17.5 kW of input power at core temperatures of 1000 K. A stainless steel sodium SAFE-100 heat pipe module was placed through repeated freeze/thaw cyclic testing accumulating over 200 restarts to a temperature of 1000 K. Additionally, the design of a 37-fuel pin stainless steel pumped sodium/potassium (NaK) loop was finalized and components procured. Ongoing testing at the EFF-TF is geared towards facilitating both research and development necessary to field a near term space nuclear system. Efforts are coordinated with DOE laboratories, industry, universities, and other NASA centers. This paper describes some of the 2004 efforts.

VanDyke, Melissa↗

Thermal Interface Comparisons Under Flight Like Conditions

Thermal interface materials are used in bolted interfaces to promote good thermal conduction between the two. The mounting surface can include panels, heat pipes, electronics boxes, etc.. . On Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) project the results are directly applicable: a) Several high power avionics boxes b) Several interfaces from RWA to radiator through heat pipe network

Rodriquez-Ruiz, Juan↗

Nuclear safety considerations in the conceptual design of a fast reactor for space electric power and propulsion

Some nuclear safety aspects of a 3.2 mWt heat pipe cooled fast reactor with out-of-core thermionic converters are discussed. Safety related characteristics of the design including a thin layer of B4C surrounding the core, the use of heat pipes and BeO reflector assembly, the elimination of fuel element bowing, etc., are highlighted. Potential supercriticality hazards and countermeasures are considered. Impacts of some safety guidelines of space transportation system are also briefly discussed, since the currently developing space shuttle would be used as the primary launch vehicle for the nuclear electric propulsion spacecraft.

Hsieh, T.-M.↗

Gas particle radiator

The performance of a new space radiator concept, the gas particle radiator (GPR), is studied. The GPR uses a gas containing submicron particles as the radiating medium contained between the radiator's emitting surface and a transparent window. For a modest volume fraction of submicron particles and gas thickness, it is found that the emissivity is determined by the window transmittance. The window must have a high transmittance in the infrared and be structurally strong enough to contain the gas-particle mixture. When the GPR is compared to a proposed titanium wall, potassium heat pipe radiator, with both radiators operating at a power level of 1.01 MW at 775 K, it is found that the GPR mass is 31 percent lower than that of the heat pipe radiator.

Chubb, Donald L.↗

Model Validation and Uncertainty Quantification on the KRUSTY Microreactor Design Using GRIFFIN Neutron Transport Code [Poster]

Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) and INL have developed a GRIFFIN steady state neutronics model for the multiphysics simulations of the Kilopower Reactor Using Sterling TechnologY (KRUSTY) microreactor in the Multiphysics Object Oriented Simulation Environment (MOOSE). The reliability of such deterministic neutronics models can be validated by comparing with computations from Monte Carlo codes (e.g. MCNP, SERPENT, OpenMC, Shift, etc). Furthermore, potential modeling/design improvements can be identified by incorporating uncertainty quantification (UQ), which can be performed by MOOSE’s Stochastic Tools Module (STM). KRUSTY is a prototype for a 5-kW thermal nuclear-powered space reactor. Its primary components consist of nuclear fuel, heat pipes, a control rod, a reflector, and the shielding. The fuel consists of 3 stacked U-7.65Mo cylinders with a hole in the center for the control rod. 8 liquid sodium heat pipes transfer fission energy from the solid fuel block to the Sterling power conversion system where the energy is extracted, and the cooled sodium flows back to the core via capillary action . The movable Boron Carbide control rod regulates the neutron population during startup or when a reactor temperature boost is needed . The beryllium oxide reflector is in 3 places in the reactor; it surrounds the core axially, it lies beneath the core on a platen, and it is present in the shim. The axial and lower reflectors rest on an adjustable stainless-steel platen that moves upward to cover the fuel and help the reactor reach criticality. Lastly, radial stainless steel surrounds the core offering protection from radiation exposure .

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗

Thermionic technology infrastructure for space power

An assessment is made of the potential effectiveness, designs, and technological difficulties involved in the construction of space nuclear reactors coupled to thermionic energy converters (TEC). The TECs can be positioned either inside or outside of the reactor core. The out-of-core design lowers the reactor shielding requirements, as well as removing the need for mechanically pumped coolant for the reactor. R&D is still needed for the heat pipes for the reactor and the collectors, electrical insulation, and to reduce the potential losses in the interelectrode space. A cylindrical converter for the out-of-core configuration consists of a tungsten emitter heated by a tungsten-lithium heat pipe. The collector is a layer of tungsten oxide deposited on a Nb-1%Zr alloy, and has been tested at emitter temperatures of 1300-1850 K and a collector temperature range of 700-850 K. A design of a superheated thermionic converter is described, noting that a prototype has been operated at 1730 K for 12,000 hr.

Huffman, F.↗

Summary of results from the testing of three prototype thermal bus systems for Space Station Freedom

Three Space Station Freedom (SSF) prototype two-phase thermal bus systems, utilizing ammonia as the working fluid, underwent extensive evaluation during 1988 and 1989. All three test articles were exercised in a similar ambient test program to characterize performance under simulated SSF operating conditions. Additionally, thermal buses were integrated with heat pipe radiators and tested in a thermal vacuum (T/V) environment. Testing has shown that two-phase thermal bus performance can be generally bound in an ambient test program; however, integrated T/V testing with heat pipe radiators similar to those that will be used on SSF is required to fully characterize system performance.

Brady, T. K.↗

The liquid droplet radiator - An ultralightweight heat rejection system for efficient energy conversion in space

A heat rejection system for space is described which uses a recirculating free stream of liquid droplets in place of a solid surface to radiate waste heat. By using sufficiently small droplets (less than about 100 micron diameter) of low vapor pressure liquids (tin, tin-lead-bismuth eutectics, vacuum oils) the radiating droplet sheet can be made many times lighter than the lightest solid surface radiators (heat pipes). The liquid droplet radiator (LDR) is less vulnerable to damage by micrometeoroids than solid surface radiators, and may be transported into space far more efficiently. Analyses are presented of LDR applications in thermal and photovoltaic energy conversion which indicate that fluid handling components (droplet generator, droplet collector, heat exchanger, and pump) may comprise most of the radiator system mass. Even the unoptimized models employed yield LDR system masses less than heat pipe radiator system masses, and significant improvement is expected using design approaches that incorporate fluid handling components more efficiently. Technical problems (e.g., spacecraft contamination and electrostatic deflection of droplets) unique to this method of heat rejection are discussed and solutions are suggested.

Mattick, A. T.↗

The Liquid Droplet Radiator - an Ultralightweight Heat Rejection System for Efficient Energy Conversion in Space

A heat rejection system for space is described which uses a recirculating free stream of liquid droplets in place of a solid surface to radiate waste heat. By using sufficiently small droplets ( 100 micron diameter) of low vapor pressure liquids the radiating droplet sheet can be made many times lighter than the lightest solid surface radiators (heat pipes). The liquid droplet radiator (LDR) is less vulnerable to damage by micrometeoroids than solid surface radiators, and may be transported into space far more efficiently. Analyses are presented of LDR applications in thermal and photovoltaic energy conversion which indicate that fluid handling components (droplet generator, droplet collector, heat exchanger, and pump) may comprise most of the radiator system mass. Even the unoptimized models employed yield LDR system masses less than heat pipe radiator system masses, and significant improvement is expected using design approaches that incorporate fluid handling components more efficiently. Technical problems (e.g., spacecraft contamination and electrostatic deflection of droplets) unique to this method of heat rejectioon are discussed and solutions are suggested.

A T Mattick↗

Results of an Advanced Development Zero Boil-Off Cryogenic Propellant Storage Test

A zero boil-off (ZBO) cryogenic propellant storage concept was recently tested in a thermally relevant low-earth orbit environment, an important development in the effort to apply this concept to flight projects. Previous efforts documented the benefits of ZBO for launch vehicle upper stages in a low-earth orbit (LEO). Central to that analysis is a ZBO Cryogenic Analysis Tool that estimates the performance of each component and the ZBO system. This test is essential to the validation of that tool, and was the first flight representative configuration tested in a thermally representative environment. The test article was comprised of a spherical 1.4 m diameter insulated propellant tank, with a submerged mixer, a cryogenic heat pipe, flight design cryocooler, and a radiator. All were enclosed in a thermal shroud and inserted into and tested in a vacuum chamber that simulated an LEO thermal environment. Thermal and pressure control tests were performed at sub-critical LN2 temperatures and approximately 2 atmospheres pressure. The cold side of the ZBO system performed well. In particular, the heat pipe performed better than expected, which suggests that the cryocooler could be located further from the tank than anticipated, i.e. on a spacecraft bus, while maintaining the desired efficiency. Also, the mixer added less heat than expected. The tank heating rate through the insulation was higher than expected; also the temperatures on the cryocooler hot side were higher than planned. This precluded the cryocooler from eliminating the boil-off. The results show the cryocooler was successful at removing 6.8 W of heat at approximately 75 K and 150 W of input power, with a heat rejection temperature of 311 K. The data generated on the ZBO components is essential for the upgrade of the ZBO Cryogenic Analysis Tool to more accurately apply the concept to future missions.

Plachta, David↗

Thermal analysis considerations for large space structures

A number of issues and needs relative to thermal analysis of large space structures and space stations are discussed. Some indications of trends in the Langley thermal-structural analysis research program consistent with the issues and needs are also presented. The main heat transfer mechanism in space is radiation; consequently, there is a need for a strong thrust on improved radiation analysis capability. Also the important interactions among temperatures, deformations, and controls need to be accounted for. Finite element analysis capability seems to be lagging behind lumped-parameter capability or heat pipe analysis. The Langley plan will include improving radiation analysis capability, evaluating the errors involved in certain approximate analysis and modeling techniques for large space trusses, and continuing the development of integrated thermal-structural finite elements with an emphasis on radiation heat transfer. Work will be initiated to develop finite element analysis techniques for heat pipes. Finally, optimization research activities will be oriented toward methods to design flexible orbiting structures to account for thermal and thermal deformation requirements.

Adelman, H. M.↗

Assessment of the Griffin Reactor Multiphysics Application Using the Empire Micro Reactor Design Concept

In late 2019, INL and ANL agreed to jointly develop the reactor physics code named Griffin based on the integration of the two code suites, MAMMOTH/Rattlesnake (INL) and MC2 - 3/PROTEUS (ANL). Griffin is being developed based on the MOOSE framework and MOOSE quality assurance procedures. This decision was made to be able to allow DOE-NE to efficiently invest funding to this area and to provide effective and timely support for existing and potential users; the latter includes industry and government organizations who are developing various types of advanced reactors in the near and long term. Since MAMMOTH/Rattlesnake has been developed based on the MOOSE framework, the INL/ANL Griffin development team agreed to build Griffin beginning with a merger of MAMMOTH and Rattlesnake into a single code and moving forward by implementing capabilities from the PROTEUS suite into Griffin. Moving forward, both ANL and INL efforts are equally invested in the Griffin project, with management support, to provide an advanced reactor multiphysics tool to assist in reactor design, optimization, and safety analysis. Much work remains in moving Griffin forward to migrate PROTEUS capabilities and to optimize performance to meet user needs. The main objective of this work is to assess the current status of Griffin capabilities in terms of performance and accuracy, to determine priorities for PROTEUS migration, and to identify capabilities and features to improve for supporting the code integration effort. For this assessment, the Empire micro reactor problem that was developed in the ARPA-E MEITNER program was selected as an advance reactor concept of interest to the technical community. The Empire reactor problem was expanded from its original incomplete specification to be a small heat-pipe-cooled micro reactor core with ~113 cm radius and 70 cm in height, composed of 18 fuel assemblies, 12 control drums, and beryllium radial and axial reflectors. In the current model, using 5 cm axial reflectors specified in the original Empire assembly model, more than 10% of neutrons leak axially and through the empty center safety hole, as well as through heat pipe channels in fuel assembly elements that extend through the top reflector region. Several calculation models of the core were defined for systematic assessment, including 2-D and 3-D fuel assemblies and whole cores with cylindrical boundaries. Cross sections were generated using Serpent 2, and meshes were produced using the Argonne mesh tool or the INL neutronics meshing tools combined with CUBIT. Cross sections and meshes were converted to the ISOXML and Exodus formats, respectively, so that Griffin and PROTEUS could use consistent data for solving the reactor problems. With the prepared cross sections and meshes, PROTEUS was run first to ensure that all input data were correctly generated and input options in terms of angle, mesh, and energy group were accurately determined. Comparisons against Serpent 2 solutions were made in terms of eigenvalue and pin power. The same calculations and comparisons were then conducted using Griffin. For the fuel assembly and whole core problems, the PROTEUS eigenvalues agreed well with reference Serpent 2 solutions within 100 and 30 pcm, respectively, and pin power differences relative to Serpent 2 were overall less than 2.2% and RMS 0.8% for the whole core models. This indicated that all input data were properly prepared. Using the same data, Griffin was run selecting the SAAF-CFEM SN solver with Legendre-Gaussian quadrature and NDA and DSA for acceleration. It was found that the SAAF-CFEM solver of Griffin required finer meshes to achieve eigenvalue and pin power solutions in good agreement with Serpent 2, consequently requiring more memory requirement and longer computation time. On the other hand, the SPH-Diffusion 2-D core calculations performed using Griffin were able to recover the exact eigenvalue from the reference Serpent 2 solutions, resulting in a pin-power distribution with an RMS of 0.6% and maximum absolute difference of less than 1.4%. The runtimes for SPH-Diffusion for the 2-D core were less than 3 minutes on 40 cores. During this evolution of this evaluation, many updates were made in Griffin by the Griffin development team of INL (focusing on software updates) and ANL (reviewing and supporting software updates) to complete this assessment. Observations from the code assessment are presented in the conclusion section of this report, followed by a discussion of recommendations for future work.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗

Safe Affordable Fission Engine (SAFE 30) Module Conductivity Test Thermal Model Correlation

Two SAFE 30 modules were tested to determinate the thermal conductivity efficiency of the tri-cusps filled between the heat pipe and the heater cores. The modules consisted of four one-inch diameter tubes with heaters joined to an empty 1 inch diam. tube. The test was conducted on a vacuum chamber with 4 configurations: tri-cusps filled with and without radiation shielding and non-filled tri-cusps with and without radiation shielding. The tri-cusps material helps the bonding of the heat pipe to the four electric heater cores, filling the gap between the pipes. The baseline configuration is a brazed joint between the pipe. The test consisted of controlling the power applied to the heaters until a set surface temperature is reach. The temperatures varied between a max. of 800 C to 500 C. Test data, input energy and chamber surface temperature from each individual test, was used as boundary conditions for the model. Nodes located on the same location as the test thermocouples were plotted again test data to determinate the accuracy of the analysis. The unknown n variables on the analysis are the radiation emissivity of the pipe and chamber and the radiation view factor between the module and the chamber. A correlation was determined using a parametric analysis varying the surface emissivity and view factor until a good match was reach.

Roman, Jose↗

Space Station active thermal control technical considerations

A description of recent and planned thermal control technology developments at the Johnson Space Center and the other NASA Centers in support of Space Stations is presented. The program is centered around satisfying the needs of the users. Preliminary results of proof-of-concept high capacity heat pipes and two-phase devices are included which indicate that large amounts of energy (100 kW) can be transported long distances (50 m) with very small temperature differences. The presentation summarizes preparations for an 'evolutionary test bed' for advanced development of thermal technology which will provide data on components and systems for incorporation into the Space Station designs in the late 1980s. The results of the recently flown Heat Pipe Experiment aboard STS-8 are presented.

Ellis, W. E.↗