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NASA NTRS2014

United States Nuclear Rocket Company (USNRC)

Historically, the development of advanced space technology has been accomplished by the federal government providing funding to commercial companies through the standard contracting process. Although recently, commercial space ventures, such as Space X, have begun to develop enhanced commercial space launch capabilities, and many companies provide space related services - including satellite development and operations, advanced technology development still requires (and should require) participation by the federal agency assigned this role - the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). However, this standard funding model may not be the most efficient and stable means of developing the advanced technology systems. And while the federal government does not need to be involved in areas where private industry can reasonably operate, it should remain the leader in supporting the development of new and advanced space technologies to further increase our national capability. And as these technologies mature, then private industry can begin the commercialization process, freeing up resources and funds for NASA to develop the next generations of advanced space technology. In fact, simply examining the last decades of space technology development shows that there is room for improvement. Part of the problem is that there are realistically two space frontiers. There is the commercialization frontier (the realm of Space X and others) and the exploratory frontier (the realm of NASA.). Often technologies that can support the exploratory frontier can also immediately support the commercialization frontier. Yet, these technologies are still developed under the standard model of federal funding and contracting. Is that really the best way to proceed? In this paper, the argument is put forward that a new process is required, a new paradigm. A consortium of federal agencies as well as commercial companies is needed - in a collaborative rather than a contractual relationship.

Hardin, L. A.↗
NASA NTRS2014

The NASA Solar System Exploration Virtual Institute: International Efforts in Advancing Lunar Science with Prospects for the Future

The NASA Solar System Exploration Research Virtual Institute (SSERVI), originally chartered in 2008 as the NASA Lunar Science Institute (NLSI), is chartered to advance both the scientific goals needed to enable human space exploration, as well as the science enabled by such exploration. NLSI and SSERVI have in succession been "institutes without walls," fostering collaboration between domestic teams (7 teams for NLSI, 9 for SSERVI) as well as between these teams and the institutes' international partners, resulting in a greater global endeavor. SSERVI teams and international partners participate in sharing ideas, information, and data arising from their respective research efforts, and contribute to the training of young scientists and bringing the scientific results and excitement of exploration to the public. The domestic teams also respond to NASA's strategic needs, providing community-based responses to NASA needs in partnership with NASA's Analysis Groups. Through the many partnerships enabled by NLSI and SSERVI, scientific results have well exceeded initial projections based on the original PI proposals, proving the validity of the virtual institute model. NLSI and SSERVI have endeavored to represent not just the selected and funded domestic teams, but rather the entire relevant scientific community; this has been done through many means such as the annual Lunar Science Forum (now re-named Exploration Science Forum), community-based grass roots Focus Groups on a wide range of topics, and groups chartered to further the careers of young scientists. Additionally, NLSI and SSERVI have co-founded international efforts such as the pan-European lunar science consortium, with an overall goal of raising the tide of lunar science (and now more broadly exploration science) across the world.

Institute↗
NASA NTRS2014

Enabling Technologies for Entrepreneurial Opportunities in 3D printing of SmallSats

A consortium of innovative experts in additive manufacturing (AM) comprising Northrup Grumman Technical Services, University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP), Configurable Space Microsystems Innovations & Applications Center (COSMIAC), NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC), and Youngstown State University, have made significant breakthroughs in the goal of creating the first complete 3D printed small satellite. Since AM machines are relatively inexpensive, this should lead to many entrepreneurial opportunities for the small satellite community. Our technology advancements are focused on the challenges of embedding key components within the structure of the article. We have demonstrated, using advanced fused deposition modeling techniques, complex geometric shapes which optimize the spacecraft design. The UTEP Keck Center has developed a method that interrupts the printing process to insert components into specific cavities, resulting in a spacecraft that has minimal internal space allocated for what traditionally were functional purposes. This allows us to increase experiment and instrument capability by provided added volume in a confined small satellite space. Leveraging initial progress made on a NASA contract, the team investigated the potential of new materials that exploit the AM process, producing candidate compositions that exceed the capabilities of traditional materials. These "new materials" being produced and tested include some that have improved radiation shielding, increased permeability, enhanced thermal properties, better conductive properties, and increased structural performance. The team also investigated materials that were previously not possible to be made. Our testing included standard mechanical tests such as vibration, tensile, thermal cycling, and impact resistance as well as radiation and electromagnetic tests. The initial results of these products and their performance will be presented and compared with standard properties. The new materials with the highest probability to disrupt the future of small satellite systems by driving down costs will be highlighted, in conjunction with the electronic embedding process.

Communications↗
NASA NTRS2014

New Laboratory-Based Satellite Impact Experiments for Breakup Fragment Characterization

A consortium consisting of the NASA Orbital Debris Program Office, U.S. Air Force's Space and Missile Systems Center, the Aerospace Corporation, and University of Florida is planning a series of hypervelocity impact experiments on mockup targets at the U.S. Air Force's Arnold Engineering Development Complex (AEDC) in early 2014. The target for the first experiment resembles a rocket upper stage whereas the target for the second experiment represents a typical 60‐cm/50‐kg class payload that incorporates modern spacecraft materials and components as well as exterior wrap of multi‐layer insulation and three solar panels. The projectile is designed with the maximum mass that AEDC's Range G two‐stage light gas gun can accelerate to an impact speed of 7 km/sec. The impact energy is expected to be close to 15 MJ to ensure catastrophic destruction of the target after the impact. Low density foam panels are installed inside the target chamber to slow down and soft‐catch the fragments for post‐impact processing. Diagnostic instruments, such as x‐ray and high speed optical cameras, will also be used to record the breakup process. The main goal of this "DebriSat" project is to characterize the physical properties, including size, mass, shape, and density distributions, of orbital debris that would be generated by a hypervelocity collision involving an upper stage or a modern satellite in the low Earth orbit environment. In addition, representative fragments will be selected for laboratory optical and radar measurements to allow for better interpretation of data obtained by telescope and radar observations. This paper will provide a preliminary report of the impact results and the plans to process, measure, and analyze the fragments.

Liou, J.-C.↗
NASA NTRS2014

Coordinated Microanalyses of Seven Particles of Probable Interstellar Origin from the Stardust Mission

Stardust, a NASA Discovery-class mission, was the first sample-return mission to return solid samples from beyond the Moon. Stardust was effectively two missions in one spacecraft: it returned the first materials from a known primitive solar system body, the Jupiter-family comet Wild 2; Stardust also returned a collector that was exposed to the contemporary interstellar dust stream for 200 days during the interplanetary cruise. Both collections present severe technical challenges in sample preparation and in analysis. By far the largest collection is the cometary one: approximately 300 micro g of material was returned from Wild 2, mostly consisting of approx. 1 ng particles embedded in aerogel or captured as residues in craters on aluminum foils. Because of their relatively large size, identification of the impacts of cometary particles in the collection media is straightforward. Reliable techniques have been developed for the extraction of these particles from aerogel. Coordinated analyses are also relatively straightforward, often beginning with synchrotron-based x-ray fluorescence (S-XRF), X-ray Absorption Near-Edge Spectoscopy (XANES) and x-ray diffraction (S-XRD) analyses of particles while still embedded in small extracted wedges of aerogel called ``keystones'', followed by ultramicrotomy and TEM, Scanning Transmission X-ray Microscopy (STXM) and ion microprobe analyses (e.g., Ogliore et al., 2010). Impacts in foils can be readily analyzed by SEM-EDX, and TEM analysis after FIB liftout sample preparation. In contrast, the interstellar dust collection is vastly more challenging. The sample size is approximately six orders of magnitude smaller in total mass. The largest particles are only a few pg in mass, of which there may be only approx.10 in the entire collection. The technical challenges, however, are matched by the scientific importance of the collection. We formed a consortium carry out the Stardust Interstellar Preliminary Examination (ISPE) to carry out an assessment of this collection, partly in order to characterize the collection in sufficient detail so that future investigators could make well-informed sample requests. The ISPE is the sixth PE on extraterrestrial collections carried out with NASA support. Some of the basic questions that we asked were: how many impacts are there in the collector, and what fraction of them have characteristics consistent with extraterrestrial materials? What is the elemental composition of the rock-forming elements? Is there crystalline material? Are there organics? Here we present coordinated microanalyses of particles captured in aerogel, using S-FTIR, S-XRF, STXM, S-XRD; and coordinated microanalyses of residues in aluminum foil, using SEMEDX, Auger spectroscopy, STEM, and ion microprobe. We discuss a novel approach that we employed for identification of tracks in aerogel, and new sample preparation techniques developed during the ISPE. We have identified seven particles - three in aerogel and four in foils - that are most consistent with an interstellar origin. The seven particles exhibit a large diversity in elemental composition. Dynamical evidence, supported supported by laboratory simulations of interstellar dust impacts in aerogel and foils, and numerical modeling of interstellar dust propagation in the heliosphere, suggests that at least some of the particles have high optical cross-section, perhaps due to an aggregate structure. However, the observations are most consistent with a variety of morphologies

Westphal, Andrew J.↗
NASA NTRS2013

Off-Axis Nulling Transfer Function Measurement: A First Assessment

We want to study a polychromatic inverse problem method with nulling interferometers to obtain information on the structures of the exozodiacal light. For this reason, during the first semester of 2013, thanks to the support of the consortium PERSEE, we launched a campaign of laboratory measurements with the nulling interferometric test bench PERSEE, operating with 9 spectral channels between J and K bands. Our objective is to characterise the transfer function, i.e. the map of the null as a function of wavelength for an off-axis source, the null being optimised on the central source or on the source photocenter. We were able to reach on-axis null depths better than 10(exp −4). This work is part of a broader project aiming at creating a simulator of a nulling interferometer in which typical noises of a real instrument are introduced. We present here our first results.

interferometric test bench PERSEE↗
NASA NTRS2014

Recent Developments and Challenges Implementing New and Improved Stress Intensity Factor (K) Solutions in NASGRO for Damage Tolerance Analyses

Fatigue crack growth analysis software has been available to damage tolerance analysts for many years in either commercial products or via proprietary in-house codes. The NASGRO software has been publicly available since the mid-80s (known as NASA/FLAGRO up to 1999) and since 2000 has been sustained and further developed by a collaborative effort between Southwest Research Institute® (SwRI®), the NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC), and the members of the NASGRO Industrial Consortium. Since the stress intensity factor (K) is the foundation of fracture mechanics and damage tolerance analysis of aircraft structures, a significant focus of development efforts in the past fifteen years has been geared towards enhancing legacy K solutions and developing new and efficient numerical K solutions that can handle the complicated stress gradients computed by today’s analysts using detailed finite element models of fatigue critical locations. This paper provides an overview of K solutions that have been recently implemented or improved for the analysis of geometries such as two unequal through cracks at a hole and two unequal corner cracks at a hole, as well as state-of-the-art weight function models capable of computing K in the presence of univariant and/or bivariant stress gradients and complicated residual stress distributions. Some historical background is provided to review how common K solutions have evolved over the years, including selective examples from the literature and from new research. Challenges and progress in rectifying discrepancies between older legacy solutions and newer models are reviewed as well as approaches and challenges for verification and validation of K solutions. Finally, a summary of current challenges and future research and development needs is presented. A key theme throughout the presentation of this paper will be how members of the aerospace industry have collaborated with software developers to develop a practical analysis tool that is used world-wide to support new design as well as the ongoing sustainment and airworthiness of commercial and military aircraft.

Cardinal, Joseph W.↗
NASA NTRS2013

Fall, Recovery and Characterization of the Novato L6 Chondrite Breccia

The Novato L6 chondrite fragmental breccia fell in California on 17 October 2012, and was recovered after the Cameras for Allsky Meteor Surveillance (CAMS) project determined the meteor's trajectory between 95 and 45 km altitude. The final fragmentation at 33 1 km altitude was exceptionally well documented by digital photographs. The first sample was recovered before rain hit the area. First results from a consortium study of the meteorite's characterization, cosmogenic and radiogenic nuclides, origin and conditions of the fall are presented. Some meteorites did not retain fusion crust and show evidence of spallation. Before entry, the meteoroid was 35+/-5 cm in diameter (mass 80+/-35 kg) with a cosmic ray exposure age of 9+/-1 Ma, if it had a one-stage exposure history. However, based on the cosmogenic nuclide inventory, a two-stage exposure history is more likely, with lower shielding in the last few Ma. Thermoluminescence data suggest a collision event within the last approx. 0.1 Ma. Novato likely belonged to the class of shocked L chondrites that have a common shock age of 470 Ma, based on the U,Th-He age of 460+/-220 Ma. The measured orbits of Novato, Jesenice and Innisfree are consistent with a proposed origin of these shocked L chondrites in the Gefion asteroid family, but leave open the possibility that they came to us directly from the 5:2 mean motion resonance with Jupiter. Novato experienced a stronger compaction than did other L6 chondrites of shock-stage S4. Despite this, a freshly broken surface shows a wide range of organic compounds.

meteorites↗
NASA NTRS2014

Small Payload Integration and Testing Project Development

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) Kennedy Space Center (KSC) has mainly focused on large payloads for space flight beginning with the Apollo program to the assembly and resupply of the International Space Station using the Space Shuttle. NASA KSC is currently working on contracting manned Low Earth Orbit (LEO) to commercial providers, developing Space Launch System, the Orion program, deep space manned programs which could reach Mars, and providing technical expertise for the Launch Services Program for science mission payloads/satellites. KSC has always supported secondary payloads and smaller satellites as the launch provider; however, they are beginning to take a more active role in integrating and testing secondary payloads into future flight opportunities. A new line of business, the Small Payload Integration and Testing Services (SPLITS), has been established to provide a one stop shop that can integrate and test payloads. SPLITS will assist high schools, universities, companies and consortiums interested in testing or launching small payloads. The goal of SPLITS is to simplify and facilitate access to KSC's expertise and capabilities for small payloads integration and testing and to help grow the space industry. An effort exists at Kennedy Space Center to improve the external KSC website. External services has partnered with SPLITS as a content test bed for attracting prospective customers. SPLITS is an emerging effort that coincides with the relaunch of the website and has a goal of attracting external partnerships. This website will be a "front door" access point for all potential partners as it will contain an overview of KSC's services, expertise and includes the pertinent contact information.

report↗
NASA NTRS2014

Detection of High Velocity Absorption Components in the He I Lines of Eta Carinae near the Time of Periastron

We have obtained a total of 58 high spectral resolution (R90,000) spectra of the massive binary star eta Carinae since 2012 in an effort to continue our orbital and long-term echelle monitoring of this extreme binary (Richardson et al. 2010, AJ, 139, 1534) with the CHIRON spectrograph on the CTIO 1.5 m telescope (Tokovinin et al. 2013, PASP, 125, 1336) in the 45507500A region. We have increased our monitoring efforts and observation frequency as the periastron event of 2014 has approached. We note that there were multiple epochs this year where we observe unusual absorption components in the P Cygni troughs of the He I triplet lines. In particular, we note high velocity absorption components related to the following epochs for the following lines: He I 4713: HJD 2456754- 2456795 (velocity -450 to -560 kms) He I 5876: HJD 2456791- 2456819 (velocity -690 to -800 kms) He I 7065: HJD 2456791- 2456810 (velocity -665 to -730 kms) Figures: Note that red indicates a high-velocity component noted above. He I 4713: http:www.astro.umontreal.carichardson4713.png He I 5876: http:www.astro.umontreal.carichardson5876.png He I 7065: http:www.astro.umontreal.carichardson7065.png These absorptions are likely related to the wind-wind collision region and bow shock, as suggested by the high-velocity absorption observed by Groh et al. (2010, AA, 519, 9) in the He I 10830 Atransition. In these cases, we suspect that we look along an arm of the shock cone and that we will see a fast absorption change from the other collision region shortly after periastron. We suspect that this is related to the multiple-components of the He II 4686 line that was noted by Walter (ATel6334), and is confirmed in our data. Further, high spectral resolution data are highly encouraged,especially for resolving powers greater than 50,000.These observations were obtained with the CTIO 1.5 m telescope, operated by the SMARTS Consortium, and were obtained through both SMARTS and NOAO programs 2012A-0216,2012B-0194, and 2013b-0328). We thank Emily MacPherson (Yale) for her efforts in scheduling the observations that we have and will obtain in the coming weeks.

binary star eta Carinae↗
NASA NTRS2014

Satellite-Model-Ground-based Inter-Comparisons (WG-3)

AERO-SAT is an international consortium of experts on aerosol remote sensing from ground and space. This initiative was established in 2013 (1) to accelerate the exchange of ideas and concepts and (2) to elevate the capabilities of satellite sensorsretrieval (aerosol) products, which are needed to constrain aerosol processing in and assist in evaluations of global modeling. The main goal of the meeting is to substantiate and invigorate the five AEROSAT working groups. On each of those five topics dedicated working groups are building up and will report on their initial activities followed by further related presentations and ample time for discussions. Organizers of the meeting held September 27-28, 2014 would like to post the presentations to a website.

satellite remote sensing↗
NASA NTRS2013

Ultrascale Visualization of Climate Data

Fueled by exponential increases in the computational and storage capabilities of high-performance computing platforms, climate simulations are evolving toward higher numerical fidelity, complexity, volume, and dimensionality. These technological breakthroughs are coming at a time of exponential growth in climate data, with estimates of hundreds of exabytes by 2020. To meet the challenges and exploit the opportunities that such explosive growth affords, a consortium of four national laboratories, two universities, a government agency, and two private companies formed to explore the next wave in climate science. Working in close collaboration with domain experts, the Ultrascale Visualization Climate Data Analysis Tools (UV-CDAT) project aims to provide high-level solutions to a variety of climate data analysis and visualization problems.

analysis tools↗
NASA NTRS2015

Mineralogy, Petrology, Chronology, and Exposure History of the Chelyabinsk Meteorite and Parent Body

The Chelyabinsk meteorite fall on February 15, 2013 attracted much more attention worldwide than do most falls. A consortium led by JSC received 3 masses of Chelyabinsk (Chel-101, -102, -103) that were collected shortly after the fall and handled with care to minimize contamination. Initial studies were reported in 2013; we have studied these samples with a wide range of analytical techniques to better understand the mineralogy, petrology, chronology and exposure history of the Chelyabinsk parent body.

Righter, K.↗
NASA NTRS2014

Integrated Medical Model Verification, Validation, and Credibility

The Integrated Medical Model (IMM) was designed to forecast relative changes for a specified set of crew health and mission success risk metrics by using a probabilistic (stochastic process) model based on historical data, cohort data, and subject matter expert opinion. A probabilistic approach is taken since exact (deterministic) results would not appropriately reflect the uncertainty in the IMM inputs. Once the IMM was conceptualized, a plan was needed to rigorously assess input information, framework and code, and output results of the IMM, and ensure that end user requests and requirements were considered during all stages of model development and implementation. METHODS: In 2008, the IMM team developed a comprehensive verification and validation (VV) plan, which specified internal and external review criteria encompassing 1) verification of data and IMM structure to ensure proper implementation of the IMM, 2) several validation techniques to confirm that the simulation capability of the IMM appropriately represents occurrences and consequences of medical conditions during space missions, and 3) credibility processes to develop user confidence in the information derived from the IMM. When the NASA-STD-7009 (7009) was published, the IMM team updated their verification, validation, and credibility (VVC) project plan to meet 7009 requirements and include 7009 tools in reporting VVC status of the IMM. RESULTS: IMM VVC updates are compiled recurrently and include 7009 Compliance and Credibility matrices, IMM VV Plan status, and a synopsis of any changes or updates to the IMM during the reporting period. Reporting tools have evolved over the lifetime of the IMM project to better communicate VVC status. This has included refining original 7009 methodology with augmentation from the NASA-STD-7009 Guidance Document. End user requests and requirements are being satisfied as evidenced by ISS Program acceptance of IMM risk forecasts, transition to an operational model and simulation tool, and completion of service requests from a broad end user consortium including Operations, Science and Technology Planning, and Exploration Planning. CONCLUSIONS: The VVC approach established by the IMM project of combining the IMM VV Plan with 7009 requirements is comprehensive and includes the involvement of end users at every stage in IMM evolution. Methods and techniques used to quantify the VVC status of the IMM have not only received approval from the local NASA community but have also garnered recognition by other federal agencies seeking to develop similar guidelines in the medical modeling community.

Validation↗
NASA NTRS2014

Flight Testing of a Low Cost De-Orbiting Device for Small Satellites

Use of small and very small spacecraft is rapidly becoming more common. Methods to intentionally deorbit these spacecraft at the end of useful satellite life are required. A family of mass efficient Roll-Out De- Orbiting devices (RODEO"TM") was developed by Composite Technology Development, Inc. (CTD). RODEO"TM" consists of lightweight film attached to a simple, ultra-lightweight, roll-out composite boom structure. This system is rolled to stow within a lightweight launch canister, allowing easy integration to the small satellite bus. The device is released at the end of useful lifetime and the RODEO"TM" composite boom unrolls the drag sail in a matter of seconds. This dramatically increases the deployed surface area, resulting in the higher aerodynamic drag that significantly reduces the time until reentry. A RODEO"TM" flight demonstration was recently conducted as part of the Colorado Space Grant Consortium's (COSGC) RocketSat-8 program, a program to provide students hands-on experience in developing experiments for space flight. The experiment was ultimately a success and RODEO (trademark) is now ready for future CubeSat missions.

Turse, Dana↗
NASA NTRS2015

Multiple Absorption Components in the Post-Periastron He I P Cygni Absorption Troughs of Eta Carinae

We have obtained more than 100 high spectral resolution (R approx. 90,000) spectra of the massive binary star eta Carinae since 2012 in an effort to continue our orbital and long-term echelle monitoring of this extreme binary (Richardson et al. 2010, AJ, 139, 1534) with the CHIRON spectrograph on the CTIO 1.5 m telescope (Tokovinin et al. 2013, PASP, 125, 1336) in the 4550-7500A region. We increased our monitoring efforts and observation frequency as the periastron event of 2014 has approached, and resumed observations in October. We note that since mid-October, we have observed unusual multiple absorption components in the P Cygni troughs of the He I lines (4714, 5876, 6678, and 7065; 4921 and 5015 are blended with Fe II). In particular, we note that these components extend to -700 km/s, well beyond the terminal wind speed of the primary. These absorptions are likely related to clumps and turbulence in the wind-wind collision region and bow shock, as suggested by the high-velocity absorption observed by Groh et al. (2010, A&A, 519, 9) in the He I 10830A transition and our pre-periastron observations (Richardson et al. 2014, ATel #6336). In these cases, we suspect that we look along an arm of the shock cone and that we see a fast absorption change from the other collision region shortly after periastron. Further, high spectral resolution data are highly encouraged, especially for resolving powers greater than 50,000. These observations were obtained with the CTIO 1.5 m telescope, operated by the SMARTS Consortium, and were obtained through both SMARTS and NOAO programs 2012A-0216, 2012B-0194, and 2013b-0328. We thank Emily MacPherson (Yale) for her efforts in scheduling the observations that we have and will obtain in the coming weeks and months.

multiple absorption components↗
NASA NTRS2009

Using XML Configuration-Driven Development to Create a Customizable Ground Data System

The Mission data Processing and Control Subsystem (MPCS) is being developed as a multi-mission Ground Data System with the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) as the first fully supported mission. MPCS is a fully featured, Java-based Ground Data System (GDS) for telecommand and telemetry processing based on Configuration-Driven Development (CDD). The eXtensible Markup Language (XML) is the ideal language for CDD because it is easily readable and editable by all levels of users and is also backed by a World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) standard and numerous powerful processing tools that make it uniquely flexible. The CDD approach adopted by MPCS minimizes changes to compiled code by using XML to create a series of configuration files that provide both coarse and fine grained control over all aspects of GDS operation.

Nash, Brent↗
NASA NTRS2010

Autonomous Sensorweb Operations for Integrated Space, In-Situ Monitoring of Volcanic Activity

We have deployed and demonstrated operations of an integrated space in-situ sensorweb for monitoring volcanic activity. This sensorweb includes a network of ground sensors deployed to the Mount Saint Helens volcano as well as the Earth Observing One spacecraft. The ground operations and space operations are interlinked in that ground-based intelligent event detections can cause the space segment to acquire additional data via observation requests and space-based data acquisitions (thermal imagery) can trigger reconfigurations of the ground network to allocate increased bandwidth to areas of the network best situated to observe the activity. The space-based operations are enabled by an automated mission planning and tasking capability which utilizes several Opengeospatial Consortium (OGC) Sensorweb Enablement (SWE) standards which enable acquiring data, alerts, and tasking using web services. The ground-based segment also supports similar protocols to enable seamless tasking and data delivery. The space-based segment also supports onboard development of data products (thermal summary images indicating areas of activity, quicklook context images, and thermal activity alerts). These onboard developed products have reduced data volume (compared to the complete images) which enables them to be transmitted to the ground more rapidly in engineering channels.

Chien, Steve A.↗