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DOE OSTI2015

EVIDENCE FOR (AND AGAINST) PROGENITOR BIAS IN THE SIZE GROWTH OF COMPACT RED GALAXIES

Most massive, passive galaxies are compact at high redshifts, but similarly compact massive galaxies are rare in the local universe. The most common interpretation of this phenomenon is that massive galaxies have grown in size by a factor of about five since redshift z = 2. An alternative explanation is that recently quenched massive galaxies are larger (a {sup p}rogenitor bias{sup )}. In this paper, we explore the importance of progenitor bias by looking for systematic differences in the stellar populations of compact early-type galaxies in the DEEP2 survey as a function of size. Our analysis is based on applying the statistical technique of bootstrap resampling to constrain differences in the median ages of our samples and to begin to characterize the distribution of stellar populations in our co-added spectra. The light-weighted ages of compact early-type galaxies at redshifts 0.5 < z < 1.4 are compared to those of a control sample of larger galaxies at similar redshifts. We find that massive compact early-type galaxies selected on the basis of red color and high bulge-to-total ratio are younger than similarly selected larger galaxies, suggesting that size growth in these objects is not driven mainly by progenitor bias, and that individual galaxies grow as their stellar populations age. However, compact early-type galaxies selected on the basis of image smoothness and high bulge-to-total ratio are older than a control sample of larger galaxies. Progenitor bias will play a significant role in defining the apparent size changes of early-type galaxies if they are selected on the basis of the smoothness of their light distributions.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2015

THE STICKINESS OF MICROMETER-SIZED WATER-ICE PARTICLES

Water ice is one of the most abundant materials in dense molecular clouds and in the outer reaches of protoplanetary disks. In contrast to other materials (e.g., silicates), water ice is assumed to be stickier due to its higher specific surface energy, leading to faster or more efficient growth in mutual collisions. However, experiments investigating the stickiness of water ice have been scarce, particularly in the astrophysically relevant micrometer-sized region and at low temperatures. In this work, we present an experimental setup to grow aggregates composed of μm-sized water-ice particles, which we used to measure the sticking and erosion thresholds of the ice particles at different temperatures between 114 K and 260 K. We show with our experiments that for low temperatures (below ∼210 K), μm-sized water-ice particles stick below a threshold velocity of 9.6 m s{sup –1}, which is approximately 10 times higher than the sticking threshold of μm-sized silica particles. Furthermore, erosion of the grown ice aggregates is observed for velocities above 15.3 m s{sup –1}. A comparison of the experimentally derived sticking threshold with model predictions is performed to determine important material properties of water ice, i.e., the specific surface energy and the viscous relaxation time. Our experimental results indicate that the presence of water ice in the outer reaches of protoplanetary disks can enhance the growth of planetesimals by direct sticking of particles.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2015

AN ANCIENT EXTRASOLAR SYSTEM WITH FIVE SUB-EARTH-SIZE PLANETS

The chemical composition of stars hosting small exoplanets (with radii less than four Earth radii) appears to be more diverse than that of gas-giant hosts, which tend to be metal-rich. This implies that small, including Earth-size, planets may have readily formed at earlier epochs in the universe's history when metals were more scarce. We report Kepler spacecraft observations of Kepler-444, a metal-poor Sun-like star from the old population of the Galactic thick disk and the host to a compact system of five transiting planets with sizes between those of Mercury and Venus. We validate this system as a true five-planet system orbiting the target star and provide a detailed characterization of its planetary and orbital parameters based on an analysis of the transit photometry. Kepler-444 is the densest star with detected solar-like oscillations. We use asteroseismology to directly measure a precise age of 11.2 ± 1.0 Gyr for the host star, indicating that Kepler-444 formed when the universe was less than 20% of its current age and making it the oldest known system of terrestrial-size planets. We thus show that Earth-size planets have formed throughout most of the universe's 13.8 billion year history, leaving open the possibility for the existence of ancient life in the Galaxy. The age of Kepler-444 not only suggests that thick-disk stars were among the hosts to the first Galactic planets, but may also help to pinpoint the beginning of the era of planet formation.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2015

STELLAR POPULATIONS FROM SPECTROSCOPY OF A LARGE SAMPLE OF QUIESCENT GALAXIES AT Z > 1: MEASURING THE CONTRIBUTION OF PROGENITOR BIAS TO EARLY SIZE GROWTH

We analyze the stellar populations of a sample of 62 massive (log M {sub *}/M {sub ☉} > 10.7) galaxies in the redshift range 1 < z < 1.6, with the main goal of investigating the role of recent quenching in the size growth of quiescent galaxies. We demonstrate that our sample is not biased toward bright, compact, or young galaxies, and thus is representative of the overall quiescent population. Our high signal-to-noise ratio Keck/LRIS spectra probe the rest-frame Balmer break region that contains important absorption line diagnostics of recent star formation activity. We obtain improved measures of the various stellar population parameters, including the star formation timescale τ, age, and dust extinction, by fitting templates jointly to both our spectroscopic and broadband photometric data. We identify which quiescent galaxies were recently quenched and backtrack their individual evolving trajectories on the UVJ color-color plane finding evidence for two distinct quenching routes. By using sizes measured in the previous paper of this series, we confirm that the largest galaxies are indeed among the youngest at a given redshift. This is consistent with some contribution to the apparent growth from recent arrivals, an effect often called progenitor bias. However, we calculate that recently quenched objects can only be responsible for about half the increase in average size of quiescent galaxies over a 1.5 Gyr period, corresponding to the redshift interval 1.25 < z < 2. The remainder of the observed size evolution arises from a genuine growth of long-standing quiescent galaxies.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2015

Thresholded power law size distributions of instabilities in astrophysics

Power-law-like size distributions are ubiquitous in astrophysical instabilities. There are at least four natural effects that cause deviations from ideal power law size distributions, which we model here in a generalized way: (1) a physical threshold of an instability; (2) incomplete sampling of the smallest events below a threshold x{sub 0}; (3) contamination by an event-unrelated background x{sub b}; and (4) truncation effects at the largest events due to a finite system size. These effects can be modeled in the simplest terms with a “thresholded power law” distribution function (also called generalized Pareto [type II] or Lomax distribution), N(x)dx∝(x+x{sub 0}){sup −a}dx, where x{sub 0} > 0 is positive for a threshold effect, while x{sub 0} < 0 is negative for background contamination. We analytically derive the functional shape of this thresholded power law distribution function from an exponential growth evolution model, which produces avalanches only when a disturbance exceeds a critical threshold x{sub 0}. We apply the thresholded power law distribution function to terrestrial, solar (HXRBS, BATSE, RHESSI), and stellar flare (Kepler) data sets. We find that the thresholded power law model provides an adequate fit to most of the observed data. Major advantages of this model are the automated choice of the power law fitting range, diagnostics of background contamination, physical instability thresholds, instrumental detection thresholds, and finite system size limits. When testing self-organized criticality models that predict ideal power laws, we suggest including these natural truncation effects.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Emergent magnetism and exchange bias effect in iron oxide nanocubes with tunable phase and size

Abstract We report a systematic investigation of the magnetic properties including the exchange bias (EB) effect in an iron oxide nanocube system with tunable phase and average size (10, 15, 24, 34, and 43 nm). X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy reveal the presence of Fe 3 O 4 , FeO, and α -Fe 2 O 3 phases in the nanocubes, in which the volume fraction of each phase varies depending upon particle size. While the Fe 3 O 4 phase is dominant in all and tends to grow with increasing particle size, the FeO phase appears to coexist with the Fe 3 O 4 phase in 10, 15, and 24 nm nanocubes but disappears in 34 and 43 nm nanocubes. The nanocubes exposed to air resulted in an α -Fe 2 O 3 oxidized surface layer whose thickness scaled with particle size resulting in a shell made of α -Fe 2 O 3 phase and a core containing Fe 3 O 4 or a mixture of both Fe 3 O 4 and FeO phases. Magnetometry indicates that the nanocubes undergo Morin (of the α -Fe 2 O 3 phase) and Verwey (of the Fe 3 O 4 phase) transitions at ∼250 K and ∼120 K, respectively. For smaller nanocubes (10, 15, and 24 nm), the EB effect is observed below 200 K, of which the 15 nm nanocubes showed the most prominent EB with optimal antiferromagnetic (AFM) FeO phase. No EB is reported for larger nanocubes (34 and 43 nm). The observed EB effect is ascribed to the strong interfacial coupling between the ferrimagnetic (FiM) Fe 3 O 4 phase and AFM FeO phase, while its absence is related to the disappearance of the FeO phase. The Fe 3 O 4 / α -Fe 2 O 3 (FiM/AFM) interfaces are found to have negligible influence on the EB. Our findings shed light on the complexity of the EB effect in mixed-phase iron oxide nanosystems and pave the way to design exchange-coupled nanomaterials with desirable magnetic properties for biomedical and spintronic applications.

Physics↗
DOE OSTI2014

Efficient algorithm for locating and sizing series compensation devices in large power transmission grids: I. Model implementation

We explore optimization methods for planning the placement, sizing and operations of Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System (FACTS) devices installed to relieve transmission grid congestion. We limit our selection of FACTS devices to Series Compensation (SC) devices that can be represented by modification of the inductance of transmission lines. Our master optimization problem minimizes the l 1 norm of the inductance modification subject to the usual line thermal-limit constraints. We develop heuristics that reduce this non-convex optimization to a succession of Linear Programs (LP) which are accelerated further using cutting plane methods. The algorithm solves an instance of the MatPower Polish Grid model (3299 lines and 2746 nodes) in 40 seconds per iteration on a standard laptop—a speed up that allows the sizing and placement of a family of SC devices to correct a large set of anticipated congestions. We observe that our algorithm finds feasible solutions that are always sparse, i.e., SC devices are placed on only a few lines. In a companion manuscript, we demonstrate our approach on realistically-sized networks that suffer congestion from a range of causes including generator retirement. In this manuscript, we focus on the development of our approach, investigate its structure on a small test system subject to congestion from uniform load growth, and demonstrate computational efficiency on a realistically-sized network.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2013

The topology and size of the universe from CMB temperature and polarization data

We analyze seven year and nine year WMAP temperature maps for signatures of three finite flat topologies M{sub 0} = T{sup 3}, M{sub 1} = T{sup 2} × R{sup 1}, and M{sub 2} = S{sup 1} × R{sup 2}. We use Monte-Carlo simulations with the Feldman-Cousins method to obtain confidence intervals for the size of the topologies considered. We analyze the V, W, and Q frequency bands along with the ILC map and find no significant difference in the results. The 95.5% confidence level lower bound on the size of the topology is 1.5L{sub 0} for M{sub 0}, 1.4L{sub 0} for M{sub 1}, and 1.1L{sub 0} for M{sub 2}, where L{sub 0} is the radius of the last scattering surface. Our results agree very well with the recently released results from the Planck temperature data. We show that the likelihood function is not Gaussian in the size, and therefore simulations are important for obtaining accurate bounds on the size. We then introduce the formalism for including polarization data in the analysis. The improvement that we find from WMAP polarization maps is small because of the high level of instrumental noise, but our forecast for Planck maps shows a much better improvement on the lower bound for L. For the M{sub 0} topology we expect an improvement on the lower bound of L from 1.7L{sub 0} to 1.9L{sub 0} at 95.5% confidence level. Using both polarization and temperature data is important because it tests the hypothesis that deviations in the TT spectrum at small l originate in the primordial perturbation spectrum.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

CHARACTERISTIC SIZE OF FLARE KERNELS IN THE VISIBLE AND NEAR-INFRARED CONTINUA

In this Letter, we present a new approach to estimate the formation height of visible and near-infrared emission of an X10 flare. The sizes of flare emission cores in three wavelengths are accurately measured during the peak of the flare. The source size is the largest in the G band at 4308 A and shrinks toward longer wavelengths, namely the green continuum at 5200 A and NIR at 15600 A, where the emission is believed to originate from the deeper atmosphere. This size-wavelength variation is likely explained by the direct heating model as electrons need to move along converging field lines from the corona to the photosphere. Therefore, one can observe the smallest source, which in our case is 0.''65 {+-} 0.''02 in the bottom layer (represented by NIR), and observe relatively larger kernels in upper layers of 1.''03 {+-} 0.''14 and 1.''96 {+-} 0.''27, using the green continuum and G band, respectively. We then compare the source sizes with a simple magnetic geometry to derive the formation height of the white-light sources and magnetic pressure in different layers inside the flare loop.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

A POSSIBLE DIVOT IN THE SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF THE KUIPER BELT'S SCATTERING OBJECTS

Via joint analysis of a calibrated telescopic survey, which found scattering Kuiper Belt objects, and models of their expected orbital distribution, we explore the scattering-object (SO) size distribution. Although for D > 100 km the number of objects quickly rise as diameters decrease, we find a relative lack of smaller objects, ruling out a single power law at greater than 99% confidence. After studying traditional ''knees'' in the size distribution, we explore other formulations and find that, surprisingly, our analysis is consistent with a very sudden decrease (a divot) in the number distribution as diameters decrease below 100 km, which then rises again as a power law. Motivated by other dynamically hot populations and the Centaurs, we argue for a divot size distribution where the number of smaller objects rises again as expected via collisional equilibrium. Extrapolation yields enough kilometer-scale SOs to supply the nearby Jupiter-family comets. Our interpretation is that this divot feature is a preserved relic of the size distribution made by planetesimal formation, now ''frozen in'' to portions of the Kuiper Belt sharing a ''hot'' orbital inclination distribution, explaining several puzzles in Kuiper Belt science. Additionally, we show that to match today's SO inclination distribution, the supply source that was scattered outward must have already been vertically heated to the of order 10 Degree-Sign .

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2014

MOSFIRE ABSORPTION LINE SPECTROSCOPY OF z > 2 QUIESCENT GALAXIES: PROBING A PERIOD OF RAPID SIZE GROWTH

Using the MOSFIRE near-infrared multi-slit spectrograph on the Keck 1 Telescope, we have secured high signal-to-noise ratio absorption line spectra for six massive galaxies with redshift 2 < z < 2.5. Five of these galaxies lie on the red sequence and show signatures of passive stellar populations in their rest-frame optical spectra. By fitting broadened spectral templates we have determined stellar velocity dispersions and, with broad-band Hubble Space Telescope and Spitzer photometry and imaging, stellar masses and effective radii. Using this enlarged sample of galaxies, we confirm earlier suggestions that quiescent galaxies at z > 2 have small sizes and large velocity dispersions compared to local galaxies of similar stellar mass. The dynamical masses are in very good agreement with stellar masses (log M {sub *}/M {sub dyn} = –0.02 ± 0.03), although the average stellar-to-dynamical mass ratio is larger than that found at lower redshift (–0.23 ± 0.05). By assuming evolution at fixed velocity dispersion, not only do we confirm a surprisingly rapid rate of size growth but we also consider the necessary evolutionary track on the mass-size plane and find a slope α = dlog R{sub e} /dlog M {sub *} ≳ 2 inconsistent with most numerical simulations of minor mergers. Both results suggest an additional mechanism may be required to explain the size growth of early galaxies.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Helium bubble size effects on the surface morphological response of plasma-facing tungsten

Abstract We report a simulation study on the effects of helium (He) bubble size on the morphological evolution and pattern formation on the surface of tungsten used as a plasma-facing component (PFC) in nuclear fusion devices. We have carried out a systematic investigation based on self-consistent dynamical simulations of surface morphological evolution according to an atomistically-informed, 3D continuum-scale model that captures well the relevant length and time scales of surface nanostructure formation in PFC tungsten. The model accounts for PFC surface diffusion, driven by the biaxial compressive stress originating from the over-pressurized He bubbles in the near-surface region of PFC tungsten as a result of He plasma exposure, combined with the formation of self-interstitial atoms in tungsten that diffuse toward the PFC surface and the flux of surface adatoms generated as a result of surface vacancy-adatom pair formation upon He implantation; this transport of surface adatoms contributes to the anisotropic growth of surface nanostructural features due to the different rates of adatom diffusion along and across step edges of islands on the tungsten surface. Our detailed analysis reveals that varying the average He bubble size plays an important role in the PFC surface growth kinetics as well as the resulting surface topography. Specifically, we find that an increase in the He bubble size leads to a deceleration in the growth rate of the tungsten nanotendrils that emanate from the PFC surface. We also find that the separation distance between the resulting surface features increases with increasing He bubble size, as well as over time. This coarsening effect is a thermally activated process resulting in an accurate description of the temperature dependence of the average surface feature separation by an Arrhenius relation.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Transferring predictions of formation energy across lattices of increasing size*

In this study, we show the transferability of graph convolutional neural network (GCNN) predictions of the formation energy of the nickel-platinum solid solution alloy across atomic structures of increasing sizes. The original dataset was generated with the large-scale atomic/molecular massively parallel simulator using the second nearest-neighbor modified embedded-atom method empirical interatomic potential. Geometry optimization was performed on the initially randomly generated face centered cubic crystal structures and the formation energy has been calculated at each step of the geometry optimization, with configurations spanning the whole compositional range. Using data from various steps of the geometry optimization, we first trained our open-source, scalable implementation of GCNN called HydraGNN on a lattice of 256 atoms, which accounts well for the short-range interactions. Using this data, we predicted the formation energy for lattices of 864 atoms and 2048 atoms, which resulted in lower-than-expected accuracy due to the long-range interactions present in these larger lattices. We accounted for the long-range interactions by including a small amount of training data representative for those two larger sizes, whereupon the predictions of HydraGNN scaled linearly with the size of the lattice. Therefore, our strategy ensured scalability while reducing significantly the computational cost of training on larger lattice sizes.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2016

Induced polarization of volcanic rocks. 2. Influence of pore size and permeability

We investigate the relationship between complex conductivity spectra and both permeability and pore mean size and distribution of 22 core samples (21 volcanic rocks and 1 clayey sandstone). The volcanic core samples were extracted from a wellbore drilled for the Humu‘ula Groundwater Research Project in the Humu‘ula saddle region between Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa volcanoes (Hawaii). The quadrature conductivity spectra of volcanic rocks exhibit a subtle, but generally detectable, relaxation frequency in the range 0.3 Hz to 45 kHz similar to the relaxation frequency observed for clayey sandstones. We find a fair relationship between this relaxation frequency and the pore size determined by mercury porosimetry. Combined with the intrinsic formation factor of the core samples, the relaxation frequency can be used as an indicator of the permeability of the material. The predicted values of the permeability are grossly consistent with the permeability values to air (in the range 0.001–100 mD) within two orders of magnitude. The measured permeability values are highly correlated to the peak of the pore size distribution determined from mercury porosimetry divided by the intrinsic formation factor. By fitting the complex conductivity spectra with the pore size distribution, we obtain the normalized chargeability of the core samples, which is, in turn, highly correlated to the measured cation exchange capacity.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

The effect of non-linear mutual friction on pulsar glitch sizes and rise times

ABSTRACT Observations of pulsar glitches have the potential to provide constraints on the dynamics of the high density interior of neutron stars. However, to do so, realistic glitch models must be constructed and compared to the data. We take a step towards this goal by testing non-linear models for the mutual friction force, which is responsible for the exchange of angular momentum between the neutron superfluid and the observable normal component in a glitch. In particular, we consider a non-linear dependence of the drag force on the relative velocity between superfluid vortices and the normal component, in which the contributions of both kelvin and phonon excitations are included. This non-linear model produces qualitatively new features, and is able to reproduce the observed bimodal distribution of glitch sizes in the pulsar population. The model also suggests that the differences in size distributions in individual pulsars may be due to the glitches being triggered in regions with different pinning strengths, as stronger pinning leads to higher vortex velocities and a qualitatively different mutual friction coupling with respect to the weak pinning case. Glitches in pulsars that appear to glitch quasi-periodically with similar sizes may thus be due to the same mechanisms as smaller events in pulsars that have no preferred glitch size, but simply originate in stronger pinning regions, possibly in the core of the star.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Galaxy–halo size relation from Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data Release 7 and the ELUCID simulation

ABSTRACT Based on galaxies in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data Release 7 and dark matter haloes in the dark matter only, cosmological, and constrained ELUCID simulation, we investigate the relation between the observed radii of central galaxies with stellar mass $\gtrsim\!{10}^{8} \, h^{-2}\, {\rm M}_\odot$ and the virial radii of their host dark matter haloes with virial mass $\gtrsim\!{10}^{10.5} \, h^{-1}\, {\rm M}_\odot$, and the dependence of galaxy–halo size relation on the halo spin and concentration. Galaxies in observation are matched to dark matter (sub)haloes in the ELUCID simulation using a novel neighbourhood subhalo abundance matching method. For galaxy two-dimensional (2D) half-light radii R50, we find that early- and late-type galaxies have the same power-law index 0.55 with $R_{50} \propto R_{\rm vir}^{0.55}$, although early-type galaxies have smaller 2D half-light radii than late-type galaxies at fixed halo virial radii. When converting the 2D half-light radii R50 to 3D half-mass radii r1/2, both early- and late-type galaxies display similar galaxy–halo size relations with $\log r_{1/2} = 0.55 \log (R_{\rm vir}/210 \, h^{-1}\, {\rm kpc}) + 0.39$. We find that the galaxy–halo size ratio r1/2/Rvir decreases with increasing halo mass. At fixed halo mass, there is no significant dependence of galaxy–halo size ratio on the halo spin or concentration.

Astronomy & Astrophysics↗
DOE OSTI2018

Reconciling the Quasar Microlensing Disc Size Problem with a Wind Model of Active Galactic Nucleus

Many analyses have concluded that the accretion disc sizes measured from the microlensing variability of quasars are larger than the expectations from the standard thin disc theory by a factor of ~4. We propose a simple model by invoking a strong wind from the disc to flatten its radial temperature profile, which can then reconcile the size discrepancy problem. This wind model has been successfully applied to several microlensed quasars with a wind strength s ≲ 1.3 by only considering the inward decreasing of the mass accretion rate [where s is defined through $∙\atop{M}$(R)∝(R/R 0 ) s ]. After further incorporating the angular momentum transferred by the wind, our model can resolve the disc size problem with an even lower wind parameter. Finally, the corrected disc sizes under the wind model are correlated with black hole masses with a slope in agreement with our modified thin disc model.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Nuclear Waste Tank Emission Contributions to Particle Size Distribution

Pollutants from anthropogenic activities including industrial processes are ubiquitous to the environment. To understand the impact from industrial aerosol on climate and human health, industrial aerosol needs to be better characterized. Here, in this study, particle number concentrations were used as a proxy for atmospheric pollutants, which include both particles and gases. Particle concentration and size distribution were measured using a scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS) approximately 4.5 km from primary industrial areas at the Savannah River Site in Aiken, SC. Industrial areas include numerous nuclear waste storage and processing tanks. The SMPS data were divided into two groups depending on the wind direction measured onsite to categorize transport from the industrial area or from elsewhere. Industrial contributions were found to have a higher concentration of particles with sizes less than 200 nm, 859 ± 564 cm -3 , in comparison to non-industrial attributed particles, 733 ± 495 cm -3 on average from March-July 2021. For sizes larger than 200 nm, industrial and non-industrial particles have a similar concentration, 89 ± 59 cm -3 and 99 ± 61 cm -3 , with non-industrial concentrations being slightly larger. To confirm that industrial particles could travel to the sampling location, air dispersion modeling was completed for specific case studies during the sampling period. The atmospheric dispersion modeling results confirmed that particles released at the industrial areas reached the sampling location when the wind direction was favorable for transport from the industrial areas. The greater concentration of smaller-sized particles in industrial emissions has implications for typical particulate measurements (PM2.5), heath impacts, and climatological influences.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗