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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 1,135 records · Page 63
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2020

Surface diffusion manifestation in electrodeposition of metal anodes

Metal anode-based battery systems have been deemed indispensable towards energy storage renaissance engendering extensive research into strategies countering dendritic growth of metal electrodeposition. Fundamentally, the morphological evolution of a material is uniquely characterized by the heights of its self-diffusion barrier across multiple pathways. Herein, based on a coarse-grained kinetic Monte Carlo method, we derive insights into the nucleation and growth of metallic electrodeposits in liquid electrolytes, governed by surface self-diffusion characteristics cognizant of the diverse diffusion routes including terrace, away from step and interlayer pathways. We deconvolve the roles played by each of these surface diffusion mechanisms in conjunction with the electrochemical reaction rate on the deposition morphology regime (film vs. mossy vs. fractal). We identify interlayer diffusion as the predominant morphology-determining mechanism; dendrite-free deposition even at moderate current rates constrains this diffusion barrier to an upper limit. Additionally, we highlight subtle features amidst the realm of the morphological growth assortment that connect to the cell's electrochemical performance. Finally, we delineate morphological features of Li, Na, Mg and Al based on their respective surface diffusion barriers and applied overpotentials, and provide a baseline for the interpretation of experimental observations. This fundamental study sheds light on the mesoscale underpinnings of morphological variances in mono-valent and multi-valent metal electrodeposition.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Redesigning protonic ceramic electrochemical cells to lower the operating temperature

Protonic ceramic electrochemical cells (PCECs) can operate at intermediate temperatures (450° to 600°C) for power generation and hydrogen production. However, the operating temperature is still too high to revolutionize ceramic electrochemical cell technology. Lowering the operating temperature to <450°C will enable a wider material choice and reduce system costs. We present approaches to redesigning PCECs via readily fabricated single-grain–thick, chemically homogeneous, and robust electrolytes and a nano-micro positive electrode. At 450°C, the PCECs achieve a peak power density of 1.6 watt per square centimeter on H 2 fuel, 0.5 watt per square centimeter on NH 3 fuel, and 0.3 watt per square centimeter on CH 4 fuel in fuel cell mode. In steam electrolysis mode, a current density of >0.6 ampere per square centimeter with a Faradaic efficiency of >90% is achievable at 1.4 volt and 400°C. In addition, exceptional durability (>2000 hours) has been demonstrated, with a degradation rate of <0.01 millivolt per 100 hours in fuel cell mode at 400°C.

Science & Technology - Other Topics↗
NASA NTRS1991

Performance of a Dual Anode Nickel-Hydrogen Cell

Nickel-hydrogen batteries are presently being used for energy storage on satellites in low Earth orbit and in geosynchronous orbit, and have also been selected for use on the proposed Space Station Freedom. Development continues on the cell technology in order to improve the specific energy and lengthen the cycle life. An experimental study was conducted to compare the voltage performance of a nickel-hydrogen cell containing a dual anode with the standard cell design which uses a single hydrogen electrode. Since the principle voltage loss in a nickel-hydrogen cell is attributed to the mass transport and resistive polarization parameters of the nickel electrode, addition of a hydrogen electrode on the other side of the nickel electrode should reduce the electrochemical polarizations by a factor of two. A 3.5 in. diameter boilerplate cell with a single 30 mils thick nickel electrode was cycled under various current conditions to evaluate its performance with a single anode and then with a double anode. A layered separator consisting of one Zircar cloth separator and one radiation-grafted polyethylene separator were used between the electrodes. The electrolyte was 26% KOH, and the tests were done at room temperature. The discharge voltage characteristics were determined as a function of current and depth-of-discharge. At the 4C discharge rate and 50% DOD, the voltage of the dual anode cell was 100 mV higher than the single anode cell. At 75% DOD the dual anode cell voltage was about 130 mV higher than the standard cell design. Resistances of the two c ell designs obtained from the slope of the mid-discharge voltages plotted against various currents indicated that the dual anode cell resistance was one-half of the state-of-the-art cell.

Gahn, Randall F.↗
DOE OSTI2025

Exploring the Electrochemical Stability Window of an All-Solid-State Composite Cathode via a Novel Operando Tender XPS Setup

All-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) have the potential to provide greater energy density than conventional batteries based on liquid electrolytes. Here, an operando ASSB cell setup for tender X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was developed, and the interface of a Ni-rich layered transition metal oxide cathode active material (CAM) and an Li 6 PS 5 Cl (LPSCl) solid electrolyte (SE) was evaluated during initial charge/discharge cycles. After validating the cell performance against a conventional pouch cell operated at high compression, intermittent galvanostatic cycling was performed, and XPS data were recorded as a function of state of charge (SOC). Upon the initial charge of the cell to ≈3.3 V Li , the LPSCl appears to decompose into LiCl, Li 3 PS 4 , and polysulfides, whose amount gradually increases with potential. Upon further charge, at a potential higher than ≈3.8 V Li , initially, present sulfate and sulfite impurities decompose, and at ≈74% SOC (corresponding to a cathode potential of ≈4.10 V Li ), surface reconstruction of the CAM particles due to lattice oxygen release is detected. In addition, at potentials beyond ≈4.6 V Li , a decrease of the S 1s counts of the sum of the LPSCl, the thiophosphate, and polysulfide species suggests the formation of elemental sulfur that is lost via sublimation into the vacuum chamber.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Recent Progress in Electrochemical Upgrading of Bio-Oil Model Compounds and Bio-Oils to Renewable Fuels and Platform Chemicals

Sustainable production of renewable carbon-based fuels and chemicals remains a necessary but immense challenge in the fight against climate change. Bio-oil derived from lignocellulosic biomass requires energy-intense upgrading to produce usable fuels or chemicals. Traditional upgrading methods such as hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) require high temperatures (200–400 °C) and 200 bar of external hydrogen. Electrochemical hydrogenation (ECH), on the other hand, operates at low temperatures (<80 °C), ambient pressure, and does not require an external hydrogen source. These environmental and economically favorable conditions make ECH a promising alternative to conventional thermochemical upgrading processes. ECH combines renewable electricity with biomass conversion and harnesses intermediately generated electricity to produce drop-in biofuels. This review aims to summarize recent studies on bio-oil upgrading using ECH focusing on the development of novel catalytic materials and factors impacting ECH efficiency and products. Here, electrode design, reaction temperature, applied overpotential, and electrolytes are analyzed for their impacts on overall ECH performance. We find that through careful reaction optimization and electrode design, ECH reactions can be tailored to be efficient and selective for the production of renewable fuels and chemicals. Preliminary economic and environmental assessments have shown that ECH can be viable alternative to convention upgrading technologies with the potential to reduce CO2 emissions by 3 times compared to thermochemical upgrading. While the field of electrochemical upgrading of bio-oil has additional challenges before commercialization, this review finds ECH a promising avenue to produce renewable carbon-based drop-in biofuels. Finally, based on the analyses presented in this review, directions for future research areas and optimization are suggested.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Valuation of Surface Coatings in High-Energy Density Lithium-ion Battery Cathode Materials

Artificial barriers, usually with either electrochemically active or inactive coating materials, are deployed on cathode material surfaces to mitigate detrimental side reactions by suppressing direct contact of cathode and electrolyte called surface coatings. These surface coatings are commonly known to increase the wettability of liquid electrolyte and reduce the interfacial charge transfer resistance. An important caveat is the selection of appropriate coating material with appropriate thickness for achieving enhanced electrochemical performance. As modern battery materials are increasingly developed with some type of surface coating, a careful and thorough examination of their role in mitigating the cycle life issues of cathode materials is paramount. Here, this comprehensive review article extensively covers the selection criteria of coating materials based on their chemical and physical properties and electrochemical functionalities. Additionally, the article discusses the concept of critical coating thickness and methods of achieving homogeneous coating architectures that deliver desired performance benefits. Furthermore, this comprehensive article summarizes the recent advancements, effectiveness, necessity of cathode surface coatings and identifies the key aspect of structure-property correlation between coating type/thickness and lithium-ion diffusion through coating layers as the linchpin that validates surface coating approaches especially for high capacity nickel-rich cathodes.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

High-Rate Long Cycle-Life Li-Air Battery Aided by Bifunctional InX3 (X = I and Br) Redox Mediators

Redox mediators (RMs) are solution-based additives that have been extensively used to reduce the charge potential and increase the energy efficiency of Li–oxygen (Li–O 2 ) batteries. However, in the presence of RMs, achieving a long cycle-life operation of Li–O 2 batteries at a high current rate is still a major challenge. In this study, we discover a novel synergy among InX 3 (X = I and Br) bifunctional RMs, molybdenum disulfide (MoS 2 ) nanoflakes as the air electrode, dimethyl sulfoxide/ionic liquid hybrid electrolyte, and LiTFSI as a salt to achieve long cycle-life operations of Li–O 2 batteries in a dry air environment at high charge–discharge rates. Our results indicate that batteries with InI3 operate up to 450 cycles with a current density of 0.5 A g –1 and 217 cycles with a current density of 1 A g –1 at a fixed capacity of 1 A h g –1 . Batteries with InBr 3 operate up to 600 cycles with a current density of 1 A g –1 . These batteries can also operate at a higher charge rate of 2 A g –1 up to 200 cycles (for InBr 3 ) and 160 cycles (for InI 3 ). Our experimental and computational results reveal that while X 3 – is the source of the redox mediator, LiX at the MoS 2 cathode, In 3+ reacts on the lithium anode side to form a protective layer on the surface, thus acting as an effective bifunctional RM in a dry air environment. This evidence for a simultaneous improvement in the current rates and cycle life of a battery in a dry air atmosphere opens a new direction for research for advanced energy storage systems.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
NASA NTRS1982

Alkaline regenerative fuel cell energy storage system for manned orbital satellites

It is pointed out that the alkaline regenerative fuel cell system represents a highly efficient, lightweight, reliable approach for providing energy storage in an orbiting satellite. In addition to its energy storage function, the system can supply hydrogen and oxygen for attitude control of the satellite and for life support. A summary is presented of the results to date obtained in connection with the NASA-sponsored fuel cell technology advancement program, giving particular attention to the requirements of the alkaline regenerative fuel cell and the low-earth mission. Attention is given to system design guidelines, weight considerations, gold-platinum cathode cell performance, matrix development, the electrolyte reservoir plate, and the cyclical load profile tests.

Martin, R. E.↗
DOE OSTI2024

Mechanisms of Hysteresis and Reversibility across the Voltage-Driven Perovskite–Brownmillerite Transformation in Electrolyte-Gated Ultrathin La 0.5 Sr 0.5 CoO 3−δ

Perovskite cobaltites have emerged as archetypes for electrochemical control of materials properties in electrolyte-gate devices. Voltage-driven redox cycling can be performed between fully oxygenated perovskite and oxygen-vacancy-ordered brownmillerite phases, enabling exceptional modulation of the crystal structure, electronic transport, thermal transport, magnetism, and optical properties. The vast majority of studies, however, have focused heavily on the perovskite and brownmillerite end points. In contrast, here we focus on hysteresis and reversibility across the entire perovskite ↔ brownmillerite topotactic transformation, combining gate-voltage hysteresis loops, minor hysteresis loops, quantitative operando synchrotron X-ray diffraction, and temperature-dependent (magneto)transport, on ion-gel-gated ultrathin (10-unit-cell) epitaxial La 0.5 Sr 0.5 CoO 3-δ films. Further, gate-voltage hysteresis loops combined with operando diffraction reveal a wealth of new mechanistic findings, including asymmetric redox kinetics due to differing oxygen diffusivities in the two phases, nonmonotonic transformation rates due to the first-order nature of the transformation, and limits on reversibility due to first-cycle structural degradation. Minor loops additionally enable the first rational design of an optimal gate-voltage cycle. Combining this knowledge, we demonstrate state-of-the-art nonvolatile cycling of electronic and magnetic properties, encompassing >10 5 transport ON/OFF ratios at room temperature, and reversible metal-insulator-metal and ferromagnet-nonferromagnet-ferromagnet cycling, all at 10-unit-cell thickness with high room-temperature stability. This paves the way for future work to establish the ultimate cycling frequency and endurance of such devices.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Choline Chloride-Based Water-in-Salt Electrolyte for Efficient Iron Electrodeposition

Electrochemical production of iron is a promising low-cost and modular approach to replace the traditional blast furnace. Aqueous electrolytes for iron electrolysis are advantageous as they can be operated at near-ambient temperatures, but they suffer from inefficiencies due to the parasitic hydrogen evolution reaction. In this work, we identify a new water-in-salt electrolyte (WiSE) based on choline chloride (ChCl) for high coulombic efficiency (>85%) iron deposition. Electrochemical analysis of the partial current densities of iron plating and hydrogen co-evolution revealed that, at optimal WiSE compositions, water reduction is kinetically suppressed resulting in an increase in the Fe plating efficiency. Decreased coordination of water and increased coordination of choline’s alcohol group with the Fe 2+ ion were observed through 1 H NMR providing evidence that water reduction is kinetically suppressed in WiSE. Additionally, Raman spectroscopy revealed that complexation effects (with Cl – ) reduce Fe 2+ diffusion coefficients and corresponding limiting currents as the ChCl concentration is increased. This results in an optimal WiSE composition (4 M ChCl + 1 M FeCl 2 ) that provides kinetic suppression of HER but also low transport resistance to Fe plating yielding 85% coulombic efficiency at high current densities.

Sinclair, Nicholas Scott [Case Western Reserve Uni↗
DOE OSTI2021

FCET Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Testing and Development: CRADA 526 [Abstract only]

The purpose of the proposed project is for PNNL to test the performance of prototype solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) created by FCET. Such testing will provide FCET with independent performance data that can be communicated to potential clients and/or investors. Additionally, PNNL will collaborate with FCET on design changes to improve fuel cell performance. Intellectual property developed in this way will benefit FCET with improved products to market, and PNNL through royalty revenue. The key technology held by FCET is a process to deposit extremely thin layers of oxide materials, from 10-50 nm in thickness. The range of possible materials that can be deposited with their method is broad, but this project will focus on the yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) electrolytes for SOFCs. Thin, gas tight YSZ membranes have been a long-sought target in SOFC research. The thinner the YSZ, the lower the cell resistance, and the higher performance of the cell (or the lower the operating temperature). 10-50 nm would be a major step change in YSZ thickness from the state of the art. PNNL can team with FCET on future R&D projects and push this technology forward to improve energy efficiency and reduce carbon emissions.

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗
DOE OSTI2025

Mitigating Crack Formation When Using High Oxygen Permeability Ionomer in PEMFC Catalyst Layers

High oxygen permeability ionomers (HOPIs) are being developed as an alternative to conventional perfluorosulfonic (PFSA) ionomers for cathodes in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). HOPIs aim to reduce local oxygen transport resistance, improving performance and reducing degradation as the catalyst loses surface area. However, HOPIs' more rigid, 3D backbone leads to increased crack density in the cathode, potentially causing accelerated degradation. This study investigates crack formation in HOPI-based and PFSA-bound catalyst layers (CLs). We conducted a comprehensive parametric study to identify conditions and catalyst slurry components that minimize cracking. CLs were fabricated with various ionomer and catalyst types, under different relative humidity (RH) levels, solids weight percentages, solvent ratios, and ionomer-to-carbon ratios (I/C). Results show that HOPI-based CLs exhibit less cracking when fabricated under low RH conditions, with lower solids weight percentage, higher alcohol content, and lower I/C. Additionally, catalysts with low/medium surface area carbon supports show less cracking than those with high surface area carbon supports.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2020

A New Family of Proton‐Conducting Electrolytes for Reversible Solid Oxide Cells: BaHf x Ce 0.8− x Y 0.1 Yb 0.1 O 3− δ

Abstract Reversible solid oxide cells based on ceramic proton conductors have potential to be the most efficient system for large‐scale energy storage. The performance and long‐term durability of these systems, however, are often limited by the ionic conductivity or stability of the proton‐conducting electrolyte. Here new family of solid oxide electrolytes, BaHf x Ce 0.8− x Y 0.1 Yb 0.1 O 3− δ (BHCYYb), which demonstrate a superior ionic conductivity to stability trade‐off than the state‐of‐the‐art proton conductors, BaZr x Ce 0.8− x Y 0.1 Yb 0.1 O 3− δ (BZCYYb), at similar Zr/Hf concentrations, as confirmed by thermogravimetric analysis, Raman, and X‐ray diffraction analysis of samples over 500 h of testing are reported. The increase in performance is revealed through thermodynamic arguments and first‐principle calculations. In addition, lab scale full cells are fabricated, demonstrating high peak power densities of 1.1, 1.4, and 1.6 W cm −2 at 600, 650, and 700 °C, respectively. Round‐trip efficiencies for steam electrolysis at 1 A cm −2 are 78%, 72%, and 62% at 700, 650, and 600 °C, respectively. Finally, CO 2 H 2 O electrolysis is carried out for over 700 h with no degradation.

Murphy, Ryan↗
DOE OSTI2021

In Situ/Operando (Soft) X-ray Spectroscopy Study of Beyond Lithium-ion Batteries

The lightweight, rechargeable lithium-ion battery is one of the dominant energy storage devices globally in portable electronics due to its high energy density, no memory effect, wide operating voltage, lightweight, and good charge efficiency. However, due to safety concerns, the depletion of lithium reserves, and the corresponding increase of cost, an alternative battery system becomes more and more desirable. To develop alternative battery systems with low cost and high material abundance, for example, sodium, magnesium, zinc, and calcium, it is important to understand the chemical and electronic structure of materials. Additionally, soft X-ray spectroscopy, for example, X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), X-ray emission spectroscopy (XES), and resonant inelastic soft X-ray scattering (RIXS), is an element-specific technique with sensitivity to the local chemical environment and structural order of the element of interest. Modern soft X-ray systems enable operando experiments that can be applied to amorphous and crystalline samples, making it a powerful tool for studying the electronic and structural changes in electrode and electrolyte species. In this article, the application of in situ/operando (soft) X-ray spectroscopy in beyond lithium-ion batteries is reviewed to demonstrate how such spectroscopic characterizations could facilitate the interpretation of interfacial phenomena under in situ/operando condition and subsequent development of the beyond lithium-ion batteries.

(soft) X-ray spectroscopy↗
DOE OSTI2022

Near-infrared spectra and molar absorption coefficients of trivalent lanthanides dissolved in molten LiCl–KCl eutectic

Determining the concentration of the dissolved lanthanide species in LiCl–KCl eutectic salt is important to the development of pyrochemical reprocessing of used nuclear fuel. In this process, lanthanide fission products are found dissolved in the electrorefiner electrolyte in their trivalent oxidation state. The presence of dissolved trivalent lanthanides increases the liquidus temperature of the electrolyte mixture and can lead to the formation of insoluble oxide or oxychloride phases and must therefore be continuously monitored and controlled during the operation. Absorbance spectroscopy is a promising method for continuous measurement of the concentration of lanthanides and other elements dissolved in the electrolyte. The absorption of light by elements is linearly proportional to the concentration of the element for relatively dilute solutions according to the Beer-Lambert law. Although measurement of the absorption of ultraviolet and visible range light by lanthanides in LiCl–KCl eutectic molten salt have been explored previously, near infrared (NIR) absorption spectroscopy has received far less attention. It may, however, provide a better analytical signal when insoluble phases are present due to less Raleigh scattering compared to shorter wavelength radiation. Additionally, it may allow for concentration determination for certain elements using NIR absorption features where UV and visible range features are overlapping with features from other species. In this study, we report the UV–Vis–NIR spectra of the trivalent lanthanide chlorides of neodymium, samarium, and dysprosium in LiCl–KCl eutectic. Molar absorption coefficients are reported for analytically useful absorption maxima, with a focus on the molar absorption coefficients for NIR absorption maxima which have not been reported previously. Additionally, we observe a NIR-range absorption band of Nd3+ which was previously predicted but never experimentally observed. Here, we compare the calculated crystal field levels to the newly observed absorbance band and find them to be in good agreement with previous predictions.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Influence of Added Salt on Chain Conformations in Poly(ethylene oxide) Melts: SANS Analysis with Complications

Poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)-based electrolytes have gained increasing attention in both the rechargeable battery industry and fundamental research, but any influence of the ions on the polymer conformation is not fully understood. Small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) is a powerful means to determine single-polymer chain conformations. We conducted SANS experiments on 50:50 blends of perdeuterated PEO (dPEO) and hydrogenous PEO (hPEO) of two different molecular weights (20 and 40 kDa) doped with two different salts (LiTFSI and LiClO 4 ) at various concentrations. An additional measurement with LiI is also reported. The scattering profiles of salt-doped dPEO/hPEO blends were measured, and the incoherent scattering from dPEO and hPEO doped with salt was measured separately. A strong low q upturn was observed in some of the blends and in the pure dPEO homopolymers. The statistical segment lengths of PEO–salt mixtures were derived using a Kratky analysis. The segment length decreases modestly with increasing amounts of LiTFSI but apparently first increases then decreases with added LiClO 4 . At the highest salt concentration examined (r = [Li+]/[EO] = 0.125), a roughly 10% decrease in the statistical segment length was observed in both LiTFSI and LiClO 4 -doped PEOs, for both molecular weights. This work confirms that added salt causes a contraction of the PEO chain dimensions, but the effect appears slightly weaker than reported recently. Certain difficulties in data analysis are also discussed, including the unexplained low q scattering even in pure deuterated polymers, uncertainties in background subtraction, and inappropriate application of the Debye function.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Demonstration of and future perspective on scaling ultrafast-laser-ablation microstructuring of Li-ion battery electrodes to roll-to-roll production and large-format cells

This work demonstrates integration of an ultrafast laser onto a roll-to-roll machine, the laser structuring of a double-sided, 700 m long roll of graphite battery anode and its subsequent manufacture into 27 Ah prismatic cells. The electrode was ablated with a novel hybrid-microstructure composed of both hexagonally arranged pores for enhanced rate performance and channels for fast electrolyte wetting. Subsequently, this anode and a non-ablated baseline anode are paired with an NMC111 cathode for cell building and electrochemical characterization. Compared to the baseline, laser ablated cells demonstrated a reduction in soaking time of at least 60%, an improvement in fast charge capability with >30% more capacity accepted during 6C charging, and an extension of cycle life of >40% during 0.5C cycling. Further, a perspective is provided on scaling ultrafast laser ablation of battery electrodes to industrial throughputs. Additionally, lessons learned from this pilot-scale demonstration are provided in regards to optical architecture, debris removal, and system control. A techno-economic analysis is used to demonstrate that laser ablation can be integrated into existing electrode manufacturing facilities with only ≈$\$$1.3 per kWh increase (≈2%) in manufacturing cost. Preemptive electrode design for laser ablation is discussed as a further method for enhancing performance. Finally, an analysis of available laser systems and beam-scanning architectures is used to determine design requirements to scale process throughput to a state-of-the-art speed of 50 m min −1 . This analysis demonstrates that laser ablating Li-ion battery electrodes has multiple benefits to manufacturing and battery performance, that the technology already exists to achieve high laser-ablation throughputs, and that integrating ultrafast laser ablation to electrode manufacturing will not create a cost or processing bottleneck.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Optimizing Fast Charging and Wetting in Lithium-Ion Batteries with Optimal Microstructure Patterns Identified by Genetic Algorithm

To sustain the high-rate current required for fast charging electric vehicle batteries, electrodes must exhibit sufficiently high effective ionic diffusion. Additionally, to reduce battery manufacturing costs, wetting time must decrease. Both of these issues can be addressed by structuring the electrodes with mesoscale pore channels. However, their optimal spatial distribution, or patterns, is unknown. Herein, a genetic algorithm has been developed to identify these optimal patterns using a CPU-cheap proxy distance-based model to evaluate the impact of the added pore networks. Both coin-cell and pouch cell form factors have been considered for the wetting analysis, with their respective electrolyte infiltration mode. Regular hexagonal and mud-crack-like patterns, respectively, for fast charging and fast wetting were found to be optimal and have been compared with pre-determined, easier to manufacture, patterns. The model predicts that using cylindrical channels arranged in a regular hexagonal pattern is ∼6.25 times more efficient for fast charging as compared to grooved lines with both structuring strategies being restricted to a 5% electrode total volume loss. The model also shows that only a very limited electrode volume loss (1%–2%) is required to dramatically improve the wetting (5–20 times) compared to an unstructured electrode.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗