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NASA NTRS1998

Thermal Output of WK-Type Strain Gauges on Various Materials at Cryogenic and Elevated Temperatures

Strain gage apparent strain (thermal output) is one of the largest sources of error associated with the measurement of strain when temperatures and mechanical loads are varied. In this paper, experimentally determined apparent strains of WK-type strain gages, installed on both metallic and composite-laminate materials of various lay-ups and resin systems for temperatures ranging from -450 F to 230 F are presented. For the composite materials apparent strain in both the 0 ply orientation angle and the 90 ply orientation angle were measured. Metal specimens tested included: aluminum-lithium alloy (Al-LI 2195-T87), aluminum alloy (Al 2219-T87), and titanium alloy. Composite materials tested include: graphite-toughened-epoxy (IM7/997- 2), graphite-bismaleimide (IM7/5260), and graphite-K3 (IM7/K3B). The experimentally determined apparent strain data are curve fit with a fourth-order polynomial for each of the materials studied. The apparent strain data and the polynomials that are fit to the data are compared with those produced by the strain gage manufacturer, and the results and comparisons are presented. Unacceptably high errors between the manufacture's data and the experimentally determined data were observed (especially at temperatures below - 270-F).

Kowalkowski, Matthew K.↗

NASA NTRS1998

Potential for EMU Fabric Damage by Electron Beam and Molten Metal During Space Welding for the International Space Welding Experiment

As a consequence of preparations concerning the International Space Welding Experiment (ISWE), studies were performed to better understand the effect of molten metal contact and electron beam impingement with various fabrics for space suit applications. The question arose as to what would occur if the electron beam from the Ukrainian Universal Hand Tool (UHT) designed for welding in space were to impinge upon a piece of Nextel AF-62 ceramic cloth designed to withstand temperatures up to 1427 C. The expectation was that the electron beam would lay down a static charge pattern with no damage to the ceramic fabric. The electron beam is capable of spraying the fabric with enough negative charge to repel further electrons from the fabric before significant heating occurs. The static charge pattern would deflect any further charge accumulation except for a small initial amount of leakage to the grounded surface of the welder. However, when studies were made of the effect of the electron beam on the insulating ceramic fabric it was surprisingly found that the electron beam did indeed burn through the ceramic fabric. It was also found that the shorter electron beam standoff distances had longer burnthrough times than did some greater electron beam standoff distances. A possible explanation for the longer burnthrough times for the small electron beam standoff distance would be outgassing of the fabric which caused the electron beam hand-tool to cycle on and off to provide some protection for the cathodes. The electron beam hand tool was observed to cycle off at the short standoff distance of two inches likely due to vapors being outgassed. During the electron beam welding process there is an electron leakage, or current leakage, flow from the fabric. A static charge pattern is initially laid down by the electron beam current flow. The static charge makes up the current leakage flow which initially slightly heats up the fabric. The initially laid down surface charge leaks a small amount of current. The rate at which the current charge leaks from the fabric controls how fast the fabric heats up. As the ceramic fabric is heated it begins to outgass primarily from contamination/impurities atoms or molecules on and below the fabric surface. The contaminant gases ionize to create extra charge carriers and multiply a current of electrons. The emitted gas which ionized in the electron leakage flow promotes further leakage. Thus, the small leakage of charge from the fabric surface is enhanced by outgassing. When the electron beam current makes up the lost current, the incoming electrons heat the fabric and further enhance the outgassing. The additional leakage promotes additional heating up of the ceramic fabric. The electrons bound to the ceramic fabric surface leak off more and more as the surface gets hotter promoting even greater leakage. The additional electrons that result also gain energy in the field and produce further electrons. Eventually the process becomes unstable and accelerates to the point where a hole is burned through the fabric.

Fragomeni, James M.↗

NASA NTRS1998

Imaging Extra-Solar Planets with an Ultra-Large Space Telescope

NASA's Origins Program is directed toward two main goals: Imaging of galactic evolution in the early universe, and searching for planets orbiting nearby stars. The Next-Generation Space Telescope (NGST), operating at low temperature with an 8-m aperture, is well designed to meet the first goal. The goal of imaging planets orbiting nearby stars is more problematic. One line of investigation has been the ULTIMA concept (Ultra-Large Telescope, Integrated Missions in Astronomy). In this report, I will lay out the resolution requirements for telescopes to achieve the imaging of extrasolar planets, and describe a modeling tool created to investigate the requirements for imaging a planet when it is very near a much brighter star.

Taylor, Charles R.↗

NASA NTRS1999

The Challenge to Create the Space Drive

To travel to our neighboring stars as practically as envisioned by science fiction, breakthroughs in science are required. One of these breakthroughs is to discover a self-contained means of propulsion that requires no propellant. To chart a path toward such a discovery, seven hypothetical space drives are presented to illustrate the specific unsolved challenges and associated research objectives toward this ambition. One research objective is to discover a means to asymmetrically interact with the electromagnetic fluctuations of the vacuum. Another is to develop a physics that describes inertia, gravity, or the properties of spacetime as a function of electromagnetics that leads to using electromagnetic technology for inducing propulsive forces. Another is to determine if negative mass exists or if its properties can be synthesized. An alternative approach that covers the possibility that negative mass might not exist is to develop a formalism of Mach's Principle or reformulate ether concepts to lay a foundation for addressing reaction forces and conservation of momentum with space drives.

Millis, Marc G.↗

NASA NTRS1998

A Lagrangian View of Stratospheric Trace Gas Distributions

As a result of photochemistry, some relationship between the stratospheric age-of-air and the amount of tracer contained within an air sample is expected. The existence of such a relationship allows inferences about transport history to be made from observations of chemical tracers. This paper lays down the conceptual foundations for the relationship between age and tracer amount, developed within a Lagrangian framework. In general, the photochemical loss depends not only on the age of the parcel but also on its path. We show that under the "average path approximation" that the path variations are less important than parcel age. The average path approximation then allows us to develop a formal relationship between the age spectrum and the tracer spectrum. Using the relation between the tracer and age spectra, tracer-tracer correlations can be interpreted as resulting from mixing which connects parts of the single path photochemistry curve, which is formed purely from the action of photochemistry on an irreducible parcel. This geometric interpretation of mixing gives rise to constraints on trace gas correlations, and explains why some observations are do not fall on rapid mixing curves. This effect is seen in the ATMOS observations.

Schoeberl, M. R.↗

NASA NTRS1996

Carbonaceous Chondrite Clasts in HED Achondrites

Since carbonaceous chondrite planetesimals are attractive candidates for the progenitors of HED asteroid(s), we have performed a survey of HED meteorites in order to locate and characterize the mineralogy, chemistry, and petrography of the oft-reported carbonaceous chondrite clasts by microprobe, SEM-EDX. and TEM techniques. We examined samples of all HEDs we could lay our gloved hands on, and found carbonaceous chondrite clasts in the howardites Kapoeta, Jodzie, EET 87513, Y 793497, LEW 85441, LEW 87015, and G'Day, the polymict eucrites LEW 97295 and LEW 95300, and the diogenite Ellemeet. We verified previous suggestions that the majority (about 80%) of these clasts are CM2 material, but we discovered that a significant proportion are CR2 (about 20%) and other rare types are present. We conclude that chondritic compounds of mixed CM2 and CR2 materials should be investigated in future geochemical modeling of the origin of the HED asteroid(s).

Zolensky, M. E.↗

NASA NTRS1998

Applying Space Technology to Enhance Control of an Artificial Arm for Children and Adults With Amputations

The first single function myoelectric prosthetic hand was introduced in the 1960's. This hand was controlled by the electric fields generated by muscle contractions in the residual limb of the amputee user. Electrodes and amplifiers, embedded in the prosthetic socket, measured these electric fields across the skin, which increase in amplitude as the individual contracts their muscle. When the myoelectric signal reached a certain threshold amplitude, the control unit activated a motor which opened or closed a hand-like prosthetic terminal device with a pincher grip. Late in the 1990's, little has changed. Most current myoelectric prostheses still operate in this same, single-function way. To better understand the limitations of the current single-function myoelectric hand and the needs of those who use them, The Institute for Rehabilitation and Research (TIRR), sponsored by the National Institutes of Health (NUH), surveyed approximately 2,500 individuals with upper limb loss [1]. When asked to identify specific features of their current myoelectric prostheses that needed improvement, the survey respondents overwhelmingly identified the lack of wrist and finger movement, as well as poor control capability. However, simply building a mechanism with individual finger and wrist motion is not enough. In the 1960's and 1970's, engineers built a number of more dexterous prosthetic hands. Unfortunately, these were rejected during clinical trials due to a difficult and distracting control interface. The goal of this project, "Applying Space Technology to Enhance Control of an Artificial Arm for Children and Adults with Amputations," was to lay the foundation for a multi-function, intuitive myoelectric control system which requires no conscious thought to move the hand. We built an extensive myoelectric signal database for six motions from ten amputee volunteers, We also tested a control system based on new artificial intelligence techniques on the data from two of these subjects. This data is available to anyone doing myoelectric control research. Its availability is an important contribution to the prosthetics research community, as many researchers do not have access to amputee subjects. Since we collected myoelectric data from subjects' sound arms as well as their residual arms, this database will also prove useful to virtual reality and robotics researchers who want to explore myoelectric-based interfaces between any user and a machine. Currently, one small company (Intelligenta, Inc.) and one university (University of New Brunswick, Canada) are using this myoelectric database under other funding to develop multifunction control systems for prostheses. A prosthetics manufacturer (Liberty Technology, Inc.) is making plans to incorporate the results of their work into an artificial hand capable of several different movements to provide functionality only dreamed of by current myoelectric users. Methods Six adults and four children, all with unilateral, below-elbow amputations served as subjects. Five of the adults (3 male, 2 female, average age 34 years) had amputations due to traumatic injury, while one adult (female, age 32 years) and the four children (3 male, 1 female, average age 13 years) had congenital (i.e. from birth) limb deficiencies.

Atkins, Diane J.↗

NASA NTRS1999

The Effect of Penetration Depth on Thermal Contrast of NDT by Thermography

Nondestructive evaluation by Thermography (TNDE) is generally classified into two categories, the passive approach and the active approach. The passive approach is usually performed by measuring the natural temperature difference between the ambient and the material or structure to be tested. The active approach, on the other hand, requires the application of an external energy source to stimulate the material for inspection. A laser, a heater, a hot air blower, a high power thermal pulse, mechanical, or electromagnetic energy may provide the energy sources. For the external heating method to inspect materials for defects and imperfection at ambient temperature, a very short burst of heat can be introduced to one of the surfaces or slow heating of the side opposite to the side being observed. Due to the interruption of the heat flow through the defects, the thermal images will reveal the defective area by contrasting against the surrounding good materials. This technique is called transient Thermography, pulse video Thermography, or thermal wave imaging. As an empirical rule, the radius of the smallest defect should be at least one to two times larger than its depth under the surface. Thermography is being used to inspect void, debond, impact damage, and porosity in composite materials. It has been shown that most of the defects and imperfection can be detected. However, the current method of inspection using thermographic technique is more of an art than a practical scientific and engineering approach. The success rate of determining the defect location and defect type is largely depend on the experience of the person who operates thermography system and performs the inspection. The operator has to try different type of heat source, different duration of its application time, as well as experimenting with the thermal image acquisition time and interval during the inspection process. Further-more, the complexity of the lay-up and structure of composites makes it more difficult to determine the optimal operating condition for revealing the defects. In order to develop an optimal thermography inspection procedure, we must understand the thermal behavior inside the material subjected to transient heat in order to interpret the thermal images correctly. Fabrication of finite element models of characteristic defects in composite materials subjected to transient heat will enable the development of appropriate procedure for thermography inspection. Design of phantom defects could be modeled and behavior characterized prior to physically building these test parts. Since production of phantom test parts can be very time consuming and laborious, it is important to design good representative defects.

Chu, Tsuchin Philip↗

NASA NTRS1998

Induction Bonding of Prepreg Tape and Titanium Foil

Hybrid structural laminates made of titanium foil and carbon fiber reinforced polymer composite offer a potential for improved performance in aircraft structural applications. To obtain information needed for the automated fabrication of hybrid laminates, a series of bench scale tests were conducted of the magnetic induction bonding of titanium foil and thermoplastic prepreg tape. Foil and prepreg specimens were placed in the gap of a toroid magnet mounted in a bench press. Several magnet power supplies were used to study power at levels from 0.5 to 1.75 kW and frequencies from 50 to 120 kHz. Sol-gel surface-treated titanium foil, 0.0125 cm thick, and PIXA/IM7 prepreg tape were used in several lay-up configurations. Data were obtained on wedge peel bond strength, heating rate, and temperature ramp over a range of magnet power levels and frequencies at different "power-on" times for several magnet gap dimensions. These data will be utilized in assessing the potential for automated processing. Peel strengths of foil-tape bonds depended on the maximum temperature reached during heating and on the applied pressure. Maximum peel strengths were achieved at 1.25kW and 8OkHz. Induction heating of the foil appears to be capable of good bonding up to 10 plies of tape. Heat transfer calculations indicate that a 20-40 C temperature difference exists across the tape thickness during heat-up.

Messier, Bernadette C.↗

NASA NTRS1997

Precise Point Positioning for the Efficient and Robust Analysis of GPS Data from Large Networks

Networks of dozens to hundreds of permanently operating precision Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers are emerging at spatial scales that range from 10(exp 0) to 10(exp 3) km. To keep the computational burden associated with the analysis of such data economically feasible, one approach is to first determine precise GPS satellite positions and clock corrections from a globally distributed network of GPS receivers. Their, data from the local network are analyzed by estimating receiver- specific parameters with receiver-specific data satellite parameters are held fixed at their values determined in the global solution. This "precise point positioning" allows analysis of data from hundreds to thousands of sites every (lay with 40-Mflop computers, with results comparable in quality to the simultaneous analysis of all data. The reference frames for the global and network solutions can be free of distortion imposed by erroneous fiducial constraints on any sites.

Zumberge, J. F.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Carbon-Carbon Piston Architectures

An improved structure for carbon-carbon composite piston architectures consists of replacing the knitted fiber, three-dimensional piston preform architecture described in U.S. Pat. No. 4.909,133 (Taylor et al.) with a two-dimensional lay-up or molding of carbon fiber fabric or tape. Initially. the carbon fabric or tape layers are prepregged with carbonaceous organic resins and/or pitches and are laid up or molded about a mandrel. to form a carbon-fiber reinforced organic-matrix composite part shaped like a "U" channel, a "T"-bar. or a combination of the two. The molded carbon-fiber reinforced organic-matrix composite part is then pyrolized in an inert atmosphere, to convert the organic matrix materials to carbon. At this point, cylindrical piston blanks are cored from the "U" channel, "T"-bar, or combination part. These blanks are then densified by reimpregnation with resins or pitches which are subsequently carbonized. Densification is also be accomplished by direct infiltration with carbon by vapor deposition processes. Once the desired density has been achieved, the piston billets are machined to final piston dimensions; coated with oxidation sealants; and/or coated with a catalyst. When compared to conventional steel or aluminum-alloy pistons, the use of carbon-carbon composite pistons reduces the overall weight of the engine; allows for operation at higher temperatures without a loss of strength; allows for quieter operation; reduces the heat loss; and reduces the level of hydrocarbon emissions.

Rivers, H. Kevin↗

NASA NTRS1999

Process for Making Carbon-Carbon Turbocharger Housing Unit for Intermittent Combustion Engines

An improved. lightweight, turbine housing unit for an intermittent combustion reciprocating internal combustion engine turbocharger is prepared from a lay-up or molding of carbon-carbon composite materials in a single-piece or two-piece process. When compared to conventional steel or cast iron, the use of carbon-carbon composite materials in a turbine housing unit reduces the overall weight of the engine and reduces the heat energy loss used in the turbo-charging process. This reduction in heat energy loss and weight reduction provides for more efficient engine operation.

Northam, G. Burton↗

NASA NTRS1998

Developing Information Power Grid Based Algorithms and Software

This exploratory study initiated our effort to understand performance modeling on parallel systems. The basic goal of performance modeling is to understand and predict the performance of a computer program or set of programs on a computer system. Performance modeling has numerous applications, including evaluation of algorithms, optimization of code implementations, parallel library development, comparison of system architectures, parallel system design, and procurement of new systems. Our work lays the basis for the construction of parallel libraries that allow for the reconstruction of application codes on several distinct architectures so as to assure performance portability. Following our strategy, once the requirements of applications are well understood, one can then construct a library in a layered fashion. The top level of this library will consist of architecture-independent geometric, numerical, and symbolic algorithms that are needed by the sample of applications. These routines should be written in a language that is portable across the targeted architectures.

Dongarra, Jack↗

NASA NTRS1999

Elevated-Temperature "Ultra" Fast Fracture Strength of Advanced Ceramics: An Approach to Elevated-Temperature "Inert" Strength

The determination of "ultra" fast fracture strengths of five silicon nitride ceramics at elevated temperatures has been made by using constant stress-rate ("dynamic fatigue") testing with a series of "ultra" fast test rates. The test material included four monolithic and one SiC whisker-reinforced composite silicon nitrides. Of the five test materials, four silicon nitrides exhibited the elevated -temperature strengths that approaches their respective room-temperature strengths at an "ultra" fast test rate of 3.3 x 10(exp 4) MPa/s. This implies that slow cracks growth responsible for elevated-temperature failure can be eliminated or minimized by using the "ultra" fast test rate. These ongoing experimental results have shed light on laying a theoretical and practical foundation on the concept and definition of elevated-temperature "inert" strength behavior of advanced ceramics.

Choi, S. R.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Performance Enhancement of the Space Shuttle RSRM Nozzle-to-Case Joint Using a Carbon Rope Barrier

A carbon rope "thermal barrier" is being considered as a component to enhance performance of the Reusable Solid Rocket Motor (RSRM) nozzle-to-case joint. Fundamental performance characteristics of the rope have been considered in this paper. In particular, resistance to erosion, ability to filter particulate matter, thermal capacitance, and flow resistance have been considered. Testing results have shown the rope to be resistant to the corrosive internal environment of the RSRM. The rope has also been shown to be an effective "slag barrier." A desirable feature of the rope would be the ability to act as a heat sink. However, analyses have indicated that the thermal capacitance of the rope is not large enough to reduce the temperature of an impinging gas stream below the ablation temperature of the 0-ring for significant time periods, The real value of the rope is its ability to act as a flow diffuser. Flow resistance test, were performed on the rope In the course of testing the rope between parallel plates, an undesirable "blow-by" phenomenon was observed when the compressive stress in the rope was smaller than the upstream gas pressure. It was found, however, that in the converging passage of the actual design, the rope would consistently "Self-seat" and thereby prevent blow-by, even in the absence of any precompression. Flow resistance values have been quantified for use in future analyses. The work presented here provides an initial thermal-fluid assessment of the rope for this application, and lays the groundwork for future development.

Ewing, M. E.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Cosmic Ray Telescope Experiment (CRT), Pioneer 10/11 Program

In May 1996 the electrical power on Pioneer 10 was no longer adequate to support the Cosmic Ray Telescope Experiment (CRT). In March 1997 ground based operations for the mission were terminated. The 25 years of Pioneer 10 were a remarkable voyage of discovery as it ventured into a vast new unexplored region of space. These observations by the Pioneer experiments led in the development of a new discipline of space science - heliospheric physics. For cosmic ray studies it was an incredible era, leading to the identification of new energetic particle populations and processes and initiating the study of the dynamics and large-scale structure and began the study of the dynamics and large-scale structure of the outer heliosphere. A summary of some of the principal scientific findings of the CRT experiment over this period is given in the next section. Even with the cessation of data from the Pioneer 10/11 mission there remained a great deal of scientific analysis and data archiving that required on the order of an additional three years of effort on the part of the CRT team. We have tried to select those tasks where the P10/11 CRT data have an important role to play. Special emphasis is placed on long-term synoptic studies that make use of the extended temporal and spatial coverage of the missions and the full capabilities of the CRT experiment. The major scientific objectives of this study are: (1) A phenomenological study of the modulation process in the heliosphere, thereby laying the foundation for developing a unified model of cosmic ray modulation over a complete 22 year heliomagnetic cycle; (2) These modulation studies and the temporal changes in the cosmic ray intensities also provide information on the large-scale structure and dynamics of the outer heliosphere; (3) use the galactic and anomalous cosmic ray data from Pioneer 10 to obtain a more accurate estimate of the distance to the modulation boundary and to the termination shock; (4) Use the results from (2) and from temporal variations to determine whether significant modulation occurs in the region of the heliosphere; (5)study the acceleration and transport of low energy solar interplanetary energetic particles and their relation to solar activity and interplanetary phenomena.

McDonald, Frank B.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Development of Analysis Methods for Designing with Composites

The project involved the development of new analysis methods to achieve efficient design of composite structures. We developed a complex variational formulation to analyze the in-plane and bending coupling response of an unsymmetrically laminated plate with an elliptical cutout subjected to arbitrary edge loading as shown in Figure 1. This formulation utilizes four independent complex potentials that satisfy the coupled in-plane and bending equilibrium equations, thus eliminating the area integrals from the strain energy expression. The solution to a finite geometry laminate under arbitrary loading is obtained by minimizing the total potential energy function and solving for the unknown coefficients of the complex potentials. The validity of this approach is demonstrated by comparison with finite element analysis predictions for a laminate with an inclined elliptical cutout under bi-axial loading.The geometry and loading of this laminate with a lay-up of [-45/45] are shown in Figure 2. The deformed configuration shown in Figure 3 reflects the presence of bending-stretching coupling. The validity of the present method is established by comparing the out-of-plane deflections along the boundary of the elliptical cutout from the present approach with those of the finite element method. The comparison shown in Figure 4 indicates remarkable agreement. The details of this method are described in a manuscript by Madenci et al. (1998).

Madenci, E.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Aero-Structural Optimization of HSCT Configurations in Transonic and Supersonic Flow

This document outlines the progress made under NASA Cooperative Research Agreement NCC2- 5226 for the period 10/01/97-09/30/98. The work statement originally proposed was meant to extend over the period of two complete years of which only one was funded. Consequently, only a portion of the goals were achieved. Similar work will continue in our group under different sponsorship and will be available in the form of conference and journal publications. The following sections summarize the technical accomplishments obtained during the last year. Details of these accomplishments can be found in the accompanying paper that was presented at the AIAA 37th Aerospace Sciences and Exhibit Meeting which was held in Reno, NV in January of this year. The original proposal outlined a research program meant to lay down the foundation for the development of high-fidelity, fully-coupled aerodynamic/structural optimization methods applicable to a variety of aerospace applications including the design optimization of High Speed Civil Transport (HSCT) configurations. The necessary research and development work was divided into two main efforts which addressed the necessities of the long term goal. Initially, our experience in the simulation of unsteady aeroelastic flows was directly applied to existing aerodynamic optimization techniques in order to provide insight into the effects of aeroelastic deformations on the performance of aircraft which have been designed based on purely aerodynamic cost functions. The intention was to follow up this work with a detailed investigation into the basic research work that has to be completed for the development of an optimization framework which efficiently allows the truly coupled design of aero-structural systems. This follow-up effort was not funded. The outcome of our efforts during the past year was the development of a coupled aero-structural analysis and design environment that was applied to the design of a complete aircraft configuration.

Alonso, Juan J.↗