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At least 1,135 records · Page 63
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2017

DE-NE0000724 - Research Performance Final Report - Investigation of Thermal Aging Effects on the Evolution of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Cast Duplex Stainless Steels

This report details the research activities carried out under DOE-NEUP award number DE-NE0000724 concerning the evolution of structural and mechanical properties during thermal aging of CF–3 and CF–8 cast duplex stainless steels (CDSS). The overall objective of this project was to use state-of-the-art characterization techniques to elucidate trends and phenomena in the mechanical and structural evolution of cast duplex stainless steels (CDSS) during thermal aging. These steels are commonly used as structural materials in commercial light water nuclear power plants, undergoing aging for decades in operation as cooling water pipes, pump casings, valve bodies, etc. During extended exposure to these conditions, CDSS are known to undergo a change in mechanical properties resulting in a loss of ductility, i.e. embrittlement. While it is generally accepted that structural changes within the ferrite phase, such as decomposition into iron (Fe)-rich and chromium (Cr)-rich domains, lead to the bulk embrittlement of the steels, many questions remain as to the mechanisms of embrittlement at multiple length scales. This work is intended to shed insight into the atomic level composition changes, associated kinetic mechanisms, and effects of changing phase structure on micro- and nano-scale deformation that lead to loss of impact toughness and tensile ductility in these steels. In general, this project provides a route to answer some of these major questions using techniques such as 3-dimensional (3-D) atom probe tomography (APT) and real-microstructure finite element method (FEM) modeling, which were not readily available when these steels were originally selected for service in light water reactors. Mechanical properties evaluated by Charpy V-notch impact testing (CVN), tensile testing, and microhardness and nanohardness measurements were obtained for each condition and compared with the initial baseline properties to view trends in deformation behavior during aging. Concurrent analysis of the microstructure and nanostructure by atom probe tomography (APT) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) provide mechanistic insight into the kinetic and mechanical behavior occurring on the nano-scale. The presence and morphology of the ferrite, austenite, and carbide phases have been characterized, and formation of new phases during aging, including spinodal decomposition products (α- and α'-ferrite) and G-phase, have been observed. The mechanical and structural characterization have been used to create accurate FEM models based on the real micro- and nano-structures of the systems. These models provide new insight into the local deformation behavior of these steels and the effects of each individual phase (including ferrite, austenite, carbides, and spinodal decomposition products) on the evolving bulk mechanical behavior of the system. The project was divided into three major tasks: 1. Initial Microstructure and Mechanical Property Survey and Initiate Heat Treatment; 2. Microstructural Characterization and Mechanical Property Testing During Aging; and 3. Microstructure-based Finite Element Modeling. Each of these tasks was successfully executed, resulting in reliable data and analysis that add to the overall body of work on the CDSS materials. Baseline properties and aging trends in mechanical data confirm prior observations and add new insights into the mechanical behavior of the steels. Structural characterization on multiple length scales provides new information on phase changes occurring during aging and sheds light on the kinetic processes occurring at the atomic scale. Furthermore, a combination of mechanical testing and microstructural characterization techniques was utilized to design FEM models of local deformation behavior of the ferrite and austenite phases, providing valuable new information regarding the effects of each of the microstructural components on the hardening and embrittlement processes. The data and analysis presented in this report and the publication associated with this project (§V) increase the understanding of aging and deformation in CF–3 and CF–8 steels. These results provide valuable information that can be utilized to aid in making informed decisions regarding the ongoing use of these steels in commercial nuclear infrastructure.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2016

Direct numerical simulations of agglomeration of circular colloidal particles in two-dimensional shear flow

Colloidal agglomeration of nanoparticles in shear flow is investigated by solving the fluid-particle and particle-particle interactions in a 2D system. We use an extended finite element method in which the dynamics of the particles is solved in a fully coupled manner with the flow, allowing an accurate description of the fluid-particle interfaces without the need of boundary-fitted meshes or of empirical correlations to account for the hydrodynamic interactions between the particles. Adaptive local mesh refinement using a grid deformation method is incorporated with the fluid-structure interaction algorithm, and the particle-particle interaction at the microscopic level is modeled using the Lennard-Jones potential. Motivated by the process used in fabricating fuel cell catalysts from a colloidal ink, the model is applied to investigate agglomeration of colloidal particles under external shear flow in a sliding bi-periodic Lees-Edwards frame with varying shear rates and particle fraction ratios. Both external shear and particle fraction are found to have a crucial impact on the structure formation of colloidal particles in a suspension. Segregation intensity and graph theory are used to analyze the underlying agglomeration patterns and structures, and three agglomeration regimes are identified.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2016

Performance comparison of Rayleigh and STW modes on quartz crystal for strain sensor application

In this study, we compare two kinds of strain sensors based on Rayleigh wave and surface transverse wave (STW) modes, respectively. First, we perform a strain-and-stress analysis using the finite element method, and we consider the contribution to a surface acoustic wave (SAW) velocity shift. Prior to fabrication, we use a coupling-of-modes model to simulate and optimize two-port SAW resonators for both modes. We use a network analyzer to measure and characterize the two devices. Further, we perform an experiment using a strain-testing system with a tapered cross-section cantilever beam. The experimental results show that the ratio of the frequency shift to the strain for the Rayleigh wave mode is −1.124 ppm/με in the parallel direction and 0.109 ppm/με in the perpendicular direction, while the corresponding values for the STW mode are 0.680 ppm/με and 0.189 ppm/με, respectively.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2023

Miniature DC electromagnetic pumps of molten lead and sodium to support development of Gen-IV nuclear reactors

This work developed designs of submerged, dual-regions, miniature DC-EM pumps for circulating molten lead and liquid sodium at ≤500 °C without active cooling for use in ex-pile and in-pile test loops to support of materials and fuel developments for Gen-IV sodium and molten lead fast nuclear reactor. These pumps with two pumping regions are 57 mm, 66.8 mm, 95.4 mm, and 133.5 mm in diameter and have two Alnico 5 permanent magnets with Hiperco-50 pole pieces for focusing the magnetic field lines in the flow duct. The Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM) linked to the Finite Element Method Magnetics (FEMM) software in MATLAB platform calculated the pumps characteristics for a wide range of parameters. Also determined are the pumps dimensions for the highest cumulative pumping power and peak efficiency. These dimensions are the height, width, and length of the flow duct, the thickness of the Alnico magnets, the length of current electrodes, and the separation distance between the two pumping regions. For molten lead, the pumping power increases from 368 W to 728 W, and the peak efficiency from 14.7% to 31.6% with increased pump diameter from 57 mm to 133.5 mm. In conclusion, for liquid sodium, both the pumping power and peak efficiency are higher, increasing from 392 W to 767 W and from 44.3 to 51.2%, respectively, with increased pump diameter from 57 mm to 133.5 mm.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2015

Efficient surface plasmon amplification in gain-assisted silver nanotubes and associated dimers

SPASER (surface plasmon amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) properties in active SiO{sub 2}–Ag nanotubes and associated dimers have been investigated by using the scattering theory and the finite element method. In the active Ag nanotube, as the gain coefficient of the core increases to a critical value, a super-resonance occurs. The SPASER phenomenon also can be found in the active Ag nanotube dimer. The strong couplings between two nanotubes lead to larger gain threshold for the active Ag nanotube dimer compared with the active Ag nanotube. At the super-resonance, the maximal surface enhanced Raman scattering factor at the “hot spot” in the active Ag nanotube dimer can achieve about 8 × 10{sup 18}, which is large enough for single molecule detection. Furthermore, with increasing the separation between two Ag nanotubes, the gain threshold value for the super-resonance of the active Ag nanotube dimer decreases, while the corresponding super-resonance wavelength increases first and then decreases.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2018

Finite Element Simulation and Optimization of Gas-Quenching Process for Tool Steels

Various gas-quenching processes, including marquenching, were investigated to optimize gas-quenching processes in terms of distortion and hardness by means of numerical and experimental analyses. The temperature, microstructure, hardness, and distortion during the various gas-quenching processes of a tool steel block were simulated using a finite element method based on a coupled thermo-metallurgical–mechanical model. The predicted temperature, hardness, and distortion agreed well with the experimental data. The tool steel block (200 × 150 × 70 mm{sup 3}) quenched under 10 bar pressure of nitrogen gas (Case 2) had higher hardness due to the higher martensite fraction and larger distortion owing to the higher thermal stress induced by faster cooling, compared to the block quenched under 2 bar pressure of nitrogen gas (Case 1). The tool steel block marquenched under 10 bar pressure of nitrogen gas interrupted by isothermal holding at 500 °C (Case 3) had 30% smaller distortion with a negligible loss of hardness compared to Case 2. Furthermore, the simulation results could provide an optimized process condition to minimize distortion of the gas-quenched tool steel block while satisfying the hardness requirement.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2018

Effect of Ag3Sn nanoparticles and temperature on Cu6Sn5 IMC growth in Sn-xAg/Cu solder joints

Highlights: • The number density of Ag{sub 3}Sn grains precipitated upon Cu{sub 6}Sn{sub 5}, increases with Ag content and reflow temperature (T). • Raising of wt. % of Ag in solder and lowering of T can cause an increase in grain diameter of Ag{sub 3}Sn nanoparticles. • The blockading effect of Ag{sub 3}Sn particles on Cu{sub 6}Sn{sub 5} IMC growth is more pronounced in Sn-3Ag and Sn-3.5Ag alloys. • IMC suppressing nanoparticles can be utilized for solder materials design. - Abstract: The growing importance of Pb-free Sn-xAg solders and high cost of Ag has attracted the attention of researchers to perform experiment with solders with varied content of Ag element. In this study, Sn-xAg(0,1,2,3.5) solder balls on Cu substrate have been reflowed at 250/275/300 °C for 60 s and air cooled. Finite element method has been utilized to simulate the concentration and temperature during cooling. The experimental results suggest that the Cu flux through grain boundary diffusion is the dominant mechanism for Cu{sub 6}Sn{sub 5} intermetallic compound growth in Pure Sn and Sn-1Ag solders. When the Ag content is increased, as in case of Sn-3Ag and Sn-3.5Ag alloys; the shielding effect of Ag{sub 3}Sn nanoparticles is the determinant factor for affecting the thickness of Cu{sub 6}Sn{sub 5} IMC. Both Cu influx rate and shielding effect of Ag{sub 3}Sn nanoparticles are enhanced with the raise in pre-cooled isothermal reflow temperature. Sn-1Ag solder is observed to have the thickest Cu{sub 6}Sn{sub 5} IMC.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2016

Multiscale Simulation Framework for Coupled Fluid Flow and Mechanical Deformation

Our work in this project is aimed at making fundamental advances in multiscale methods for flow and transport in highly heterogeneous porous media. The main thrust of this research is to develop a systematic multiscale analysis and efficient coarse-scale models that can capture global effects and extend existing multiscale approaches to problems with additional physics and uncertainties. A key emphasis is on problems without an apparent scale separation. Multiscale solution methods are currently under active investigation for the simulation of subsurface flow in heterogeneous formations. These procedures capture the effects of fine-scale permeability variations through the calculation of specialized coarse-scale basis functions. Most of the multiscale techniques presented to date employ localization approximations in the calculation of these basis functions. For some highly correlated (e.g., channelized) formations, however, global effects are important and these may need to be incorporated into the multiscale basis functions. Other challenging issues facing multiscale simulations are the extension of existing multiscale techniques to problems with additional physics, such as compressibility, capillary effects, etc. In our project, we explore the improvement of multiscale methods through the incorporation of additional (single-phase flow) information and the development of a general multiscale framework for flows in the presence of uncertainties, compressible flow and heterogeneous transport, and geomechanics. We have considered (1) adaptive local-global multiscale methods, (2) multiscale methods for the transport equation, (3) operator-based multiscale methods and solvers, (4) multiscale methods in the presence of uncertainties and applications, (5) multiscale finite element methods for high contrast porous media and their generalizations, and (6) multiscale methods for geomechanics.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2021

Effects of pillar design on the thermal performance of vacuum-insulated glazing

Vacuum-insulated glazing (VIG) with a low-emittance coating has a great market potential as an effective transparent insulator. The thermal insulating performance of VIG is determined by its design, including material selection and configuration of different components. Thermal conductance of the vacuum gap as a transport bottleneck is one of the primary factors controlling the thermal transport across VIG. In particular, because support pillars provide the main thermal transport channels across the vacuum gap, increasing the pillar thermal resistance is a key strategy for creating effective thermal insulation while maintaining the vacuum space. Here, the effects of various pillar design parameters, such as thermal conductivity, geometry, and arrangement, on the VIG thermal performance were comprehensively investigated via the finite element method. In addition, analytical models for thermal transport were examined and thermal conductance across the VIG unit was experimentally measured for validation. The pillar design parameters, especially the height, shape, spacing, and arrangement of the pillars, showed significant effects on the thermal performance of VIG. This research also shows that the smaller contact area for horizontal pillars can effectively decrease the heat loss by more than 30%. Because current VIG analytical equations of thermal performance are only applicable to cylindrical pillars, an analytical equation that can better describe the thermal performance of rectangular parallelepiped pillars is presented, along with a discussion about the mechanism of thermal transfer for different pillar shapes. Thermo-mechanical analyses based on 3D FEM simulations can provide valuable insights into the effect of various design parameters on the overall performance the VIG, allowing for the development of an optimal VIG design.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2016

Tailoring surface plasmon resonance and dipole cavity plasmon modes of scattering cross section spectra on the single solid-gold/gold-shell nanorod

Tunable surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and dipole cavity plasmon modes of the scattering cross section (SCS) spectra on the single solid-gold/gold-shell nanorod have been numerically investigated by using the finite element method. Various effects, such as the influence of SCS spectra under x- and y-polarizations on the surface of the single solid-gold/gold-shell nanorod, are discussed in detail. With the single gold-shell nanorod, one can independently tune the relative SCS spectrum width by controlling the rod length and rod diameter, and the surface scattering by varying the shell thickness and polarization direction, as well as the dipole peak energy. These behaviors are consistent with the properties of localized SPRs and offer a way to optically control and produce selected emission wavelengths from the single solid-gold/gold-shell nanorod. The electric field and magnetic distributions provide us a qualitative idea of the geometrical properties of the single solid-gold/gold-shell nanorod on plasmon resonance.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2019

Effect of α/β Forging on Microstructure and Texture Inhomogeneity in a Ti-1023 Forged Disk

The microstructure and texture distribution of a Ti-1023 forged disk were investigated by scanning electron microscopy and synchrotron-based high-energy X-ray diffraction. The finite element method was used to simulate temperature and strain distribution in order to investigate the relationship of the α/β forging process with microstructure and texture distribution. A bimodal microstructure and rolling textures with large inhomogeneity were observed in the disk. A plate-like and a necklace-like morphology and volume fraction variations of the primary α phase were observed in different regions with different forging conditions, such as temperature, deformation, position, and high density of flow lines. Texture sharpness distribution of the β phase was in good agreement with the strain distribution, which suggests deformation may play the most important part in the texture inhomogeneity. A weak cube texture was obtained near the center of the disk, and fiber textures were found near the rim of the disk. The primary a phase also exhibited a transverse texture, which is favored by large deformation.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2015

High-speed GPU-based finite element simulations for NDT

The finite element method solved with explicit time increments is a general approach which can be applied to many ultrasound problems. It is widely used as a powerful tool within NDE for developing and testing inspection techniques, and can also be used in inversion processes. However, the solution technique is computationally intensive, requiring many calculations to be performed for each simulation, so traditionally speed has been an issue. For maximum speed, an implementation of the method, called Pogo [Huthwaite, J. Comp. Phys. 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.jcp.2013.10.017], has been developed to run on graphics cards, exploiting the highly parallelisable nature of the algorithm. Pogo typically demonstrates speed improvements of 60-90x over commercial CPU alternatives. Pogo is applied to three NDE examples, where the speed improvements are important: guided wave tomography, where a full 3D simulation must be run for each source transducer and every different defect size; scattering from rough cracks, where many simulations need to be run to build up a statistical model of the behaviour; and ultrasound propagation within coarse-grained materials where the mesh must be highly refined and many different cases run.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2018

Generalized Multiscale Inversion for Heterogeneous Problems

In this work, we propose a generalized multiscale inversion algorithm for heterogeneous problems that aims at solving an inverse problem on a computational coarse grid. Previous inversion techniques for multiscale problems seek a coarse-grid medium properties, e.g., permeability and conductivity, and by doing so, they assume that there exists a homogenized representation of the underlying fine-scale permeability field on a coarse grid. Generally such assumptions do not hold for highly heterogeneous fields, e.g., fracture media or channelized fields, where the width of channels are very small compared to the scale of coarse grids. In these cases, grid refinement can lead to many degrees of freedom, and thus numerically unattractive to apply. The proposed algorithm is based on the Generalized Multiscale Finite Element Method (GMsFEM), which uses local spectral problems to identify non-localized features, i.e., channels (high-conductivity inclusions that connect the boundaries of the coarse-grid block). The inclusion of these features in the coarse space enables one to achieve a good accuracy. The approach is valid under the assumption that the solution can be well represented in a reduced-dimensional space spanned by multiscale basis functions. In practice, these basis functions are non-observable as we do not identify the fine-scale features of the permeability field. Our inversion algorithm finds the discretization parameters of the resulting system on the coarse grid. By doing so, we identify the appropriate coarse-grid parameters representing the permeability field instead of fine-grid permeability field. We illustrate the potential of the approach by numerical results for fractured media.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2019

Novel refractive index sensor based on fiber bragg grating in nano-bore optical fiber

In this paper, we propose a novel refractive index sensor with large dynamic range based on fiber Bragg grating in the nano-bore optical fiber. The spectral responses of grating on the filling index in the bore with different bore diameters and index ranges are numerically studied by the finite element method and coupled mode theory based transmission matrix method. It is found that the Bragg wavelength of grating is sensitive to the filling index in the bore. The influences of bore diameter on the wavelength sensitivity, resolution and dynamic range of the index sensor are analyzed. There exists a trade off between the linear dynamic range and sensitivity of index when the bore diameter varies. The optimized wavelength sensitivity and resolution of filling index are 53.6923 nm/index unit and 9.3123 × 10{sup −6} index under a linear index range of 1.0–1.4 using 2 µm bore diameter. The optimized linear dynamic range of index is 1.0–1.48 with wavelength sensitivity of 13.3056 nm/index unit and resolution of 3.7578 × 10{sup −5} index using 1 µm bore diameter. Our proposed index sensor has the technical advantages of simple all-fiber structure, large index range, and potential capability to synchronously detect index, temperature and strain.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2019

Residual Stress Asymmetry in Thin Sheets of Double-Sided Shot Peened Aluminum

The local mechanical properties and residual stresses of a double-sided shot-peened aluminum alloy AA7050-T7451 sheet were measured by nanoindentation and simulated by the finite element method (FEM). The variation of the pileup area around the indentation due to residual stresses, as well as changes in hardness as a function of cold working, was assessed. Numerical simulations were conducted to investigate the residual stress profile. When the indentation contact area was corrected to account for pileup induced from residual stresses, the hardness increased about 10% over the range of depths at which compressive residual stresses exist, indicating some strain hardening did occur. The maximum compressive residual stress for the second shot-peened surface is on the order of 10% higher than the first surface; this is ascribed to the sequencing during the peening process, in which the first side peening influenced the stress throughout the part thickness for these thin plate structures. The ability to couple FEM simulations and rapid experimental assessments of residual stresses and hardness allows for future prediction of part thickness effects in double-sided peening processes.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2014

Measurement strategy for rectangular electrical capacitance tomography sensor

To investigate the influence of the measurement strategy for the rectangular electrical capacitance tomography (ECT) sensor, a Finite Element Method (FEM) is utilized to create the model for simulation. The simulation was carried out using COMSOL Multiphysics(trade mark, serif) and Matlab(trade mark, serif). The length-width ratio of the rectangular sensing area is 5. Twelve electrodes are evenly arranged surrounding the pipe. The covering ratio of the electrodes is 90%. The capacitances between different electrode pairs are calculated for a bar distribution. The air of the relative permittivity 1.0 and the material of the permittivity 3.0 are used for the calibration. The relative permittivity of the second phase is 3.0. The noise free and noise data are used for the image reconstruction using the Linear Back Projection (LBP). The measurement strategies with 1-, 2- and 4- electrode excitation are compared using the correlation coefficient. Preliminary results show that the measurement strategy with 2-electrode excitation outperforms other measurement strategies with 1- or 4-electrode excitation.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2016

New developments in ALCYONE 2.0 fuel performance code

ALCYONE is a multi-dimensional (1D, 2D or 3D) fuel performance code dedicated to pressurized water reactors (PWR). This code is co-developed in the PLEIADES platform by CEA, EDF and AREVA and simulates fuel pellets and cladding evolutions during base irradiation, power ramps and accidental situations. Sophisticated chemical and physical models are used. The thermal and mechanical behavior is solved with the finite element method based code CAST3M. ALCYONE 2.0 is the next release of the code and it includes several new features: improvements in incidental and accidental situations modeling, new models available for 2D and 3D schemes and an evolution of neutron model to simulate gadolinium fuel. ALCYONE 2.0 uses a new version of PLEIADES platform which allows the parallelized computation of rod axial slices in order to decrease computation times. To better simulate accidental situations, an axial transfer model for gases and a modeling of heaters for Loss Of Coolant Accident (LOCA) experiments have been added to the code. The axial transfer model can simulate an axial internal pressure gradient in the fuel rod. For power ramps simulations in the 1D scheme, a new model for dish filling is available. This version will be validated on more than 400 rods covering a wide range of irradiation conditions.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2017

Metal Big Area Additive Manufacturing: Process Modeling and Validation

Metal Big Area Additive Manufacturing (mBAAM) is a new additive manufacturing (AM) technology for printing large-scale 3D objects. mBAAM is based on the gas metal arc welding process and uses a continuous feed of welding wire to manufacture an object. An electric arc forms between the wire and the substrate, which melts the wire and deposits a bead of molten metal along the predetermined path. In general, the welding process parameters and local conditions determine the shape of the deposited bead. The sequence of the bead deposition and the corresponding thermal history of the manufactured object determine the long range effects, such as thermal-induced distortions and residual stresses. Therefore, the resulting performance or final properties of the manufactured object are dependent on its geometry and the deposition path, in addition to depending on the basic welding process parameters. Physical testing is critical for gaining the necessary knowledge for quality prints, but traversing the process parameter space in order to develop an optimized build strategy for each new design is impractical by pure experimental means. Computational modeling and optimization may accelerate development of a build process strategy and saves time and resources. Because computational modeling provides these opportunities, we have developed a physics-based Finite Element Method (FEM) simulation framework and numerical models to support the mBAAM process s development and design. In this paper, we performed a sequentially coupled heat transfer and stress analysis for predicting the final deformation of a small rectangular structure printed using the mild steel welding wire. Using the new simulation technologies, material was progressively added into the FEM simulation as the arc weld traversed the build path. In the sequentially coupled heat transfer and stress analysis, the heat transfer was performed to calculate the temperature evolution, which was used in a stress analysis to evaluate the residual stresses and distortions. In this formulation, we assume that physics is directionally coupled, i.e. the effect of stress of the component on the temperatures is negligible. The experiment instrumentation (measurement types, sensor types, sensor locations, sensor placements, measurement intervals) and the measurements are presented. The temperatures and distortions from the simulations show good correlation with experimental measurements. Ongoing modeling work is also briefly discussed.

Additive Manufacturing↗