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At least 1,117 records · Page 62
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2026

Engineered plants for the production of the antioxidants arbutin and gallate

The shikimate pathway is a crucial metabolic route for the biosynthesis of numerous valuable chemicals. In this study, we engineered the shikimate pathway in plants via expression of microbial enzymes to produce the two important antioxidants gallate and arbutin. The engineered pathways utilize the aromatics protocatechuate and 4-hydroxybenzoate as metabolic intermediates. Through transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves, we first identified biosynthetic routes for the production of gallate from either chorismate or 3-dehydroshikimate. Gallate production was then achieved in Arabidopsis using a genetic background that overproduces protocatechuate and via expression of a mutated version of the 4-hydroxybenzoate hydroxylase PobA from Pseudomonas sp. Arbutin production was obtained in Arabidopsis using a genetic background that overproduces 4-hydroxybenzoate and via expression of the monooxygenase MNX1 from Candida parapsilosis. The best Arabidopsis transgenic lines accumulated gallate and arbutin in the range of 0.25 and 0.93 dry weight % (dwt%), respectively. Using sorghum for large-scale in planta production, the titers of gallate and arbutin produced from the intermediate 4-hydroxybenzoate reached 0.58 dwt% and 0.50 dwt%, respectively, in mature transgenic plants, surpassing levels typically observed in plants that naturally produce these compounds. Gallate and arbutin were readily extracted from plant tissues using methanol solvent. Analysis of extractive-free biomass showed only trace amounts of gallate and its precursors 4-hydroxybenzoate and protocatechuate crosslinked to cell walls, suggesting that they mainly occur as soluble conjugated forms stored in the vacuole. This study presents alternative synthesis routes using plant hosts for the eco-friendly production of gallate and arbutin.

Antioxidant↗
DOE OSTI2026

Metabolic flux and resource balance in the oleaginous yeast Rhodotorula toruloides

The yeast Rhodotorula toruloides is a promising bioproduction organism due to its high lipid yields and ability to grow on cheap and abundant substrates. Quantitative, systems-level assessment of its metabolic activity is accordingly merited. Resource-balance analysis (RBA) models capture not only reaction stoichiometry but also enzyme requirements for catalysis, providing valuable tools for understanding metabolic trade-offs and optimizing metabolic engineering strategies. Here, in this work, we present systems-level measurements of R. toruloides metabolic flux based on isotope tracing and metabolic flux analysis. In combination with new proteomic measurements, these flux data are used to parameterize a genome-scale resource balance model rtRBA. We find that S. cerevisiae and R. toruloides grow at nearly indistinguishable rates using similar biosynthetic but dramatically different central metabolic programs. R. toruloides consumes one-fifth as much glucose, which it metabolizes primarily via the pentose phosphate pathway and TCA cycle unlike primarily glycolysis in S. cerevisiae . Overall, across these two divergent yeasts, protein abundances aligned more closely than metabolic flux. Resource balance modeling of these metabolic programs predicts superior theoretical yields but lower productivities in R. toruloides than S. cerevisiae for industrial chemicals, highlighting the value of rapid glucose uptake for productivity but respiratory metabolism for yields.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

A quantitative assessment of the model form error of friction models across different interface representations for jointed structures

Hysteretic models are widely used to model frictional interactions in joints to recreate experimental behavior. However, it is unclear which models are best suited for fitting or predicting the responses of structures. Here, the present study evaluates 26 friction model/interface representation combinations to quantify the model form error. A Quasi-Static Modal Analysis approach (termed Rayleigh Quotient Nonlinear Modal Analysis) is adopted to calculate the nonlinear system response, and a Multi-Objective Optimization is solved to fit experimental data of the first mode of the Brake-Reuß Beam. Optimized parameters from the first mode are applied to the second and third bending modes to quantify the predictive ability of the models. Formulations for both tracing full hysteresis loops and recreating hysteresis loops from a single loading curve (Masing assumptions) are considered. Smoothly varying models applied to a five patch representation showed the highest flexibility (for fitting mode 1) and good predictive potential (for modes 2 and 3). For a second formulation, which uses 152 frictional elements to represent the interface, the physically motivated spring in series with a Coulomb slip model (elastic dry friction) has high error for fitting mode 1 and performs near the middle for predicting higher modes. For both interface representation, the best fit models are not the most physical, but rather the ones with the most parameters (as expected); however, the more physical models perform somewhat better for predicting the higher modes.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2021

Investigation of species-mass diffusion in binary-species boundary layers at high pressure using direct numerical simulations

Here, direct numerical simulations of single-species and binary-species temporal boundary layers at high pressure are performed with special attention to species-mass diffusion. The working fluids are nitrogen or a mixture of nitrogen and methane. Mean profiles and turbulent fluctuations of mass fraction show that their qualitative characteristics are different from those of streamwise velocity and temperature, due to the different boundary conditions. In a wall-parallel plane near the wall, the streamwise velocity and temperature have streaky patterns and the fields are similar. However, the mass fraction field at the same location is different from the streamwise velocity and temperature fields indicating that species-mass diffusion is not similar to the momentum and thermal diffusion. In contrast, at the centre and near the edge of the boundary layer, the mass fraction and temperature fields have almost the same pattern, indicating that the similarity between thermal and species-mass diffusion holds away from the wall. The lack of similarity near the wall is traced to the Soret effect that induces a temperature-gradient-dependent species-mass flux. As a result, a new phenomenon has been identified for a non-isothermal binary-species system – uphill diffusion, which in its classical isothermal definition can only occur for three or more species. A quadrant analysis for the turbulent mass flux reveals that near the wall the Soret effect enhances the negative contributions of the quadrants. Due to the enhancement of the negative contributions, small species-concentration fluid tends to be trapped near the wall.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2022

Effects of thermophoresis on high-pressure binary-species boundary layers with uniform and non-uniform compositions

Direct numerical simulations of high-pressure binary-species temporal boundary layers are performed to investigate the flow physics for three situations: (1) uniform and equal composition, (2) uniform but unequal compositions and (3) non-uniform composition. Both colder- and hotter-wall situations compared with the free stream are simulated. The working fluid is a nitrogen/methane mixture. The analysis is performed at a case-specific self-similar state. Even when the initial composition is uniform, the methane mean mass fraction decreases near the colder wall, whereas it increases near the hotter wall and the mass fraction fluctuates in the entire boundary layer. Analysis of the species-mass diffusion balance and flow structures reveal that both mass-fraction variation and fluctuations are induced by the Soret effect. When the initial composition is non-uniform and the wall is colder, the methane mean mass fraction monotonically increases from the wall akin to its initial profile. However, when the wall is hotter the mean mass fraction decreases near the wall in contrast to its initial profile, a fact traced through the species-mass diffusion balance to the Soret effect being large and enriching methane near the wall. In contrast, the direction of the Soret flux is opposite for the colder wall, thus keeping the methane concentration small. Although the initial magnitude of the difference between the wall and free-stream temperature is the same in all cases, the situation is not symmetric between colder- and hotter-wall cases; the flow structure exhibits much smaller scales when the wall is hotter than when the wall is colder.

Mechanics↗
DOE OSTI2022

Non-Gaussianity of optical emission lines in SDSS star-forming galaxies and its implications on galactic outflows

The shape of emission lines in the optical spectra of star-forming galaxies reveals the kinematics of the diffuse gaseous component. We analyse the shape of prominent emission lines in a sample of ~ 53000 star-forming galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, focusing on departures from gaussianity. Departures from a single gaussian profile allow us to probe the motion of gas and to assess the role of outflows. The sample is divided into groups according to their stellar velocity dispersion and star formation rate (SFR). The spectra within each group are stacked to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the emission lines, to remove individual signatures, and to enhance the effect of SFR on the shapes of the emission lines. The moments of the emission lines, including kurtosis and skewness, are determined. We find that most of the emission lines in strong star-forming systems unequivocally feature negative kurtosis. This signature is present in Hβ, Hα, [N ii], and [S ii] in massive galaxies with high SFRs. We attribute it as evidence of radial outflows of ionised gas driven by the star formation of the galaxies. Also, most of the emission lines in low-mass systems with high SFRs feature negative skewness, and we interpret it as evidence of dust obscuration in the galactic disk. These signatures are however absent in the [O iii] line, which is believed to trace a different gas component. The observed trend is significantly stronger in face-on galaxies, indicating that star formation drives the outflows along the galactic rotation axis, presumably the path of least resistance. The data suggest that outflows driven by star formation exert accumulated impacts on the interstellar medium, and the outflow signature is more evident in older galaxies as they have experienced a longer total duration of star formation.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2021

A hybrid full-wave Markov chain approach to calculating radio-frequency wave scattering from scrape-off layer filaments

The interaction of radio-frequency (RF) waves with edge turbulence modifies the incident wave spectrum, and can significantly affect RF heating and current drive in tokamaks. Previous lower hybrid (LH) scattering models have either used the weak-turbulence approximation, or treated more realistic, filamentary turbulence in the ray tracing limit. In this study, a new model is introduced which retains full-wave effects of RF scattering in filamentary turbulence. First, a Mie-scattering technique models the interaction of an incident wave with a single Gaussian filament. Next, an effective differential scattering width is derived for a statistical ensemble of filaments. Lastly, a Markov chain solves for the transmitted wave spectrum in slab geometry. This model is applied to LH launching for current drive. The resulting wave spectrum is asymmetrically broadened in angular wavenumber space. This asymmetry is not accounted for in previous LH scattering models. The modified wave spectrum is coupled to a ray tracing/Fokker–Planck solver (GENRAY/CQL3D) to study its impact on current drive. The resulting current profile is greatly altered, and there is significant increase in the on-axis current and decrease in the off-axis peaks. This is attributed to a portion of the modified wave spectrum that is strongly dampened on-axis during the first pass.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Calculation of collisionless pitch-angle scattering of runaway electrons with synchrotron radiation via high-order guiding-centre equation

Recently, the collisionless pitch-angle scattering for relativistic runaway electrons (REs) in toroidal geometries such as tokamaks was discovered through a full orbit simulation approach (Liu et al., Nucl. Fusion, vol. 56, 2016, p. 064002), and it was then theoretically investigated that a new expression for the magnetic moment, including the second-order corrections, could essentially reproduce the so-called collisionless pitch-angle scattering process (Liu et al., Nucl. Fusion, vol. 58, 2018, p. 106018). In this paper, with synchrotron radiation, extensive numerical verification of the validity of the high-order guiding-centre theory is given for simulations involving REs by incorporating such an expression for the magnetic moment into our particle tracing code. A high-order guiding-centre simulation approach with synchrotron radiation (HGSA) is applied. Synchrotron radiation plays an essential role in the life cycle of REs. The energy of REs first increases and then becomes saturated until the electric field acceleration is balanced by the radiation dissipation. Unfortunately, the process cannot be simulated accurately with the standard guiding-centre model, i.e. the first-order guiding-centre model. Remarkably, it is found that the HGSA can effectively produce the fundamental process of REs. Since the time scale of the energy saturation of REs is close to seconds, the computational cost becomes significant. In order to save costs, it is necessary to estimate the time of energy saturation. An analytical estimate is derived for the time it takes for synchrotron drag to balance an accelerating electric field and the provided formula has been numerically verified. Finally, test calculations reveal that HGSA is favourable for exploiting the dynamics of REs in tokamak plasmas.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Energetic electron transport in magnetic fields with island chains and stochastic regions

This paper investigates energetic electron transport in magnetized toroidal plasmas with magnetic fields characterized by island chains and regions of stochastic field lines produced by coil perturbations. We report on experiments performed in the DIII-D tokamak, which utilize electron cyclotron heating and current drive pulses to ‘tag’ electron populations within different locations across the discharge. The cross-field transport of these populations is then inferred from electron cyclotron emission measurements and gamma emission signals from scintillator detectors. Two types of energetic particles are distinguished and discussed: non-relativistic suprathermal electrons and relativistic runaway electrons. The magnetic field topology in each discharge is reconstructed with field-line tracing codes, which are also used to determine the location and scale of magnetic islands and stochastic regions. Comparison of simulations and experiments suggests that suprathermal transport is suppressed when the tagging is performed at a smaller radial location than the location of the $q = 1$ island chain and enhanced otherwise. Here q is the safety factor. We further demonstrate that increasing the width of the stochastic region within the edge plasma yields enhancement of the suprathermal electron transport.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Optimization of nonlinear turbulence in stellarators

We present new stellarator equilibria that have been optimized for reduced turbulent transport using nonlinear gyrokinetic simulations within the optimization loop. The optimization routine involves coupling the pseudo-spectral GPU-native gyrokinetic code GX with the stellarator equilibrium and optimization code DESC . Since using GX allows for fast nonlinear simulations, we directly optimize for reduced nonlinear heat fluxes. To handle the noisy heat flux traces returned by these simulations, we employ the simultaneous perturbation stochastic approximation (SPSA) method that only uses two objective function evaluations for a simple estimate of the gradient. We show several examples that optimize for both reduced heat fluxes and good quasi-symmetry as a proxy for low neoclassical transport. Finally, we run full transport simulations using the T3D stellarator transport code to evaluate the changes in the macroscopic profiles.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Beam focusing and consequences for Doppler backscattering measurements

The phenomenon of focusing of microwave beams in a plasma near a turning-point caustic is discussed by exploiting the analytical solution to the Gaussian beam-tracing equations in the two-dimensional (2-D) linear-layer problem. The location of maximum beam focusing and the beam width at that location are studied in terms of the beam initial conditions. This focusing must be taken into account to interpret Doppler backscattering (DBS) measurements. We find that the filter function that characterises the scattering intensity contribution along the beam path through the plasma is inversely proportional to the beam width, predicting enhanced scattering from the beam focusing region. We show that the DBS signal enhancement for decreasing incident angles between the beam path and the density gradient is due to beam focusing and not due to forward scattering, as was originally proposed by (Gusakov et al., (Plasma Phys. Contr. Fusion, vol. 56, 2014, p. 0250092014, 2017); Plasma Phys. Rep. vol. 43(6), 2017, pp. 605–613). The analytic beam model is used to predict the measurement of the k y density-fluctuation wavenumber power spectrum via DBS, showing that, in an NSTX-inspired example, the spectral exponent of the turbulent, intermediate-to-high k y density-fluctuation spectrum might be quantitatively measurable via DBS, but not the spectral peak corresponding to the driving scale of the turbulent cascade.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Single-Electron Temporal Behavior in the Gun Region of the Tecnai Femto UEM

Here, we conduct systematic simulations of single-electron packet durations in the electron-gun region of a Thermo Fisher/FEI TecnaiFemto UEM. Furthermore, we conducted particle tracing simulations with the General Particle Tracer software package and using field maps generated from the precise Tecnai Femto gun architecture with the Poisson Superfish code.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

A Roadmap for Edge Computing Enabled Automated Multidimensional Transmission Electron Microscopy

The advent of modern, high-speed electron detectors has made the collection of multidimensional hyperspectral transmission electron microscopy datasets, such as 4D-STEM, a routine. However, many microscopists find such experiments daunting since analysis, collection, long-term storage, and networking of such datasets remain challenging. Some common issues are their large and unwieldy size that often are several gigabytes, non-standardized data analysis routines, and a lack of clarity about the computing and network resources needed to utilize the electron microscope. The existing computing and networking bottlenecks introduce significant penalties in each step of these experiments, and thus, real-time analysis-driven automated experimentation for multidimensional TEM is challenging. One solution is to integrate microscopy with edge computing, where moderately powerful computational hardware performs the preliminary analysis before handing off the heavier computation to high-performance computing (HPC) systems. In this work, we trace the roots of computation in modern electron microscopy, demonstrate deep learning experiments running on an edge system, and discuss the networking requirements for tying together microscopes, edge computers, and HPC systems.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2020

Aerosol Optical Tweezers Elucidate the Chemistry, Acidity, Phase Separations, and Morphology of Atmospheric Microdroplets

Aerosol particles represent unique chemical environments because of their high surface area-to-volume ratio that promotes the effects of interfacial chemistry in confined environments. Properties such as viscosity, diffusivity, water content, pH, and morphology—following liquid–liquid phase separation—can strongly alter how a particle interacts with condensable vapors and reactive trace gases, thus modifying its continual evolution and environmental effects. Our understanding of this chemical evolution of atmospheric particulate matter and its environmental impacts is largely limited by our ability to directly observe how these critical particle properties respond to the addition or reactive uptake of new chemical components. Aerosol optical tweezers (AOT) stably trap particles in focused laser beams, providing positional control and the retrieval of many of these critical properties required to understand and predict the chemistry of aerosolized microdroplets. The analytical power of the AOT stems from the retrieval of the cavity-enhanced Raman spectrum induced by the trapping laser. Analysis of the whispering gallery modes (WGMs) that resonate as a standing wave around the droplet’s interface, provide high accuracy measurements of the droplet’s size, refractive index (and thus a measurement of composition), and can distinguish between core–shell, partially engulfed, and homogeneous morphologies. In this study, we have advanced the ability to determine the properties of the core and shell phases in biphasic droplets, including obtaining high-accuracy pH measurements. These capabilities were applied to perform AOT physical chemistry experiments on authentic secondary organic aerosol (SOA) produced directly in the AOT chamber by ozonolysis of terpene vapors. The propensity of the SOA to phase separate as a shell from a wide range of nonpolar to polar core phases was observed, along with the discovery of a stable emulsified state of SOA particles in an aqueous salt droplet. Micron-thick SOA shells did not impede the gain or loss of water or squalane from the core to the surrounding air, indicating no significant diffusional limitations to condensational growth or partitioning even under dry conditions. These experiments formed the foundation of a new framework that predicts how the phase-separated morphology of complex aerosols containing organic carbon evolves during continual atmospheric oxidation processes. Increases in oxidation state will quickly drive conversion from a partially engulfed to core–shell morphology that has dramatically different chemical reactivity since the core phase is completely concealed by the shell. The recent advances in the experimental capabilities of the AOT technique such as presented here enable novel experimental methodologies that provide insights into the chemistry and multidimensional properties of aerosol microdroplets, and how these coevolve and respond to continual chemical reactions.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2020

Sensitive Top-Down Proteomics Analysis of a Low Number of Mammalian Cells Using a Nanodroplet Sample Processing Platform

Top-down proteomics is a powerful tool for characterizing genetic variations and post-translational modifications at intact protein level. That being said, one significant technical gap of top-down proteomics is the inability to analyze low amount of biological samples, which limits its access to isolated rare cells, fine-needle aspiration biopsies, and tissue substructures. Herein, we developed an ultrasensitive top-down platform by incorporating a microfluidic sample preparation system, termed nanoPOTS (Nanodroplet Processing in One pot for Trace Samples), into a top-down proteomics workflow. A unique combination of a nonionic detergent dodecyl-ß-D-maltopyranoside (DDM) with urea as protein extraction buffer significantly improved both protein extraction efficiency and sample recovery. We hypothesize that the DDM detergent improves protein recovery by efficiently reducing non-specific adsorption of intact proteins on container surfaces, while urea serves as a strong denaturant to disrupt noncovalent complexes and release intact proteins for downstream analysis. The nanoPOTS-based top-down platform reproducibly and quantitatively identified ~170 to ~620 proteoforms from ~70 to ~770 HeLa cells containing ~10 to ~115 ng of total protein. A variety of post-translational modifications including acetylation, myristoylation, and iron binding were identified using only less than 800 cells. We anticipate the nanoPOTS top-down proteomics platform will be broadly applicable in biomedical researches, particularly where clinical specimens are not available in amounts amenable to standard workflows.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2020

Automated Coupling of Nanodroplet Sample Preparation with Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry for High-Throughput Single-Cell Proteomics

Single-cell proteomics can provide critical biological insight into the cellular heterogeneity that is masked by bulk-scale analysis. Here, we have developed a nanoPOTS (nanodroplet processing in one pot for trace samples) platform and demonstrated its broad applicability for single-cell proteomics. However, because of nanoliter-scale sample volumes, the nanoPOTS platform is not compatible with automated LC-MS systems, which significantly limits sample throughput and robustness. To address this challenge, we have developed a nanoPOTS autosampler allowing fully automated sample injection from nanowells to LC-MS systems. We also developed a sample drying, extraction, and loading workflow to enable reproducible and reliable sample injection. The sequential analysis of 20 samples containing 10 ng tryptic peptides demonstrated high reproducibility with correlation coefficients of >0.995 between any two samples. The nanoPOTS autosampler can provide analysis throughput of 9.6, 16, and 24 single cells per day using 120, 60, and 30 min LC gradients, respectively. As a demonstration for single-cell proteomics, the autosampler was first applied to profiling protein expression in single MCF10A cells using a label-free approach. At a throughput of 24 single cells per day, an average of 256 proteins was identified from each cell and the number was increased to 731 when the Match Between Runs algorithm of MaxQuant was used. Using a multiplexed isobaric labeling approach (TMT-11plex), ~77 single cells could be analyzed per day. We analyzed 152 cells from three acute myeloid leukemia cell lines, resulting in a total of 2558 identified proteins with 1465 proteins quantifiable (70% valid values) across the 152 cells. These data showed quantitative single-cell proteomics can cluster cells to distinct groups and reveal functionally distinct differences.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2020

Ion Mobility Spectrometry with High Ion Utilization Efficiency Using Traveling Wave-Based Structures for Lossless Ion Manipulations

Ion packets introduced from gates, ion funnel traps, and other conventional ion injection mechanisms produce ion pulse widths typically around a few microseconds or less for ion mobility spectrometry (IMS)-based separations on the order of 100 milliseconds. When such ion injection techniques are coupled with ultralong path length traveling wave (TW)-based IMS separations (i.e., on the order of seconds) using structures for lossless ion manipulations (SLIMs), typically very low ion utilization efficiency is achieved for continuous ion sources [e.g., electrospray ionization (ESI)]. Even with the ability to trap and accumulate much larger populations of ions than being conventionally feasible over longer time periods in SLIM devices, the subsequent long separations lead to overall low ion utilization. In this study, we report the use of a highly flexible SLIM arrangement, enabling concurrent ion accumulation and separation and achieving near-complete ion utilization with ESI. We characterize the ion accumulation process in SLIM, demonstrate >98% ion utilization, and show both increased signal intensities and measurement throughput. This approach is envisioned to have broad utility to applications, for example, involving the fast detection of trace chemical species.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Coupling Microdroplet-Based Sample Preparation, Multiplexed Isobaric Labeling, and Nanoflow Peptide Fractionation for Deep Proteome Profiling of the Tissue Microenvironment

There is increasing interest in developing in-depth proteomic approaches for mapping tissue heterogeneity in a cell-type-specific manner to better understand and predict the function of complex biological systems such as human organs. Existing spatially resolved proteomics technologies cannot provide deep proteome coverage due to limited sensitivity and poor sample recovery. Herein, we seamlessly combined laser capture microdissection with a low-volume sample processing technology that includes a microfluidic device named microPOTS (microdroplet processing in one pot for trace samples), multiplexed isobaric labeling, and a nanoflow peptide fractionation approach. The integrated workflow allowed us to maximize proteome coverage of laser-isolated tissue samples containing nanogram levels of proteins. We demonstrated that the deep spatial proteomics platform can quantify more than 5000 unique proteins from a small-sized human pancreatic tissue pixel (∼60,000 μm2) and differentiate unique protein abundance patterns in pancreas. Furthermore, the use of the microPOTS chip eliminated the requirement for advanced microfabrication capabilities and specialized nanoliter liquid handling equipment, making it more accessible to proteomic laboratories.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗