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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Sizing and Location Selection of Medium‐Voltage Back‐to‐Back Converters for DER‐Dominated Distribution Systems

Medium‐voltage back‐to‐back (MVB2B) converters can connect two distribution systems and quantifiably transfer power between them. This function can enable the MVB2B converter to exchange distributed energy resource (DER)‐generated power between two systems and bring significant value to enhancing distribution system DER adoption. Our previous work analysed and demonstrated the value MVB2B converter can bring to DER integration. As continuous work, this paper presents a methodology that helps address the MVB2B converter sizing and location selection problem in distribution systems with high DER penetrations. The proposed methodology aims to address three critical problems for MVB2B converter implementation in the real world: (1) which distribution systems are better to be connected, (2) what converter size is appropriate for connecting the distribution systems, and (3) where the optimal connection points are in the systems for connecting the MVB2B converter. The proposed methodology has been demonstrated by case studies that include various scenarios involving distribution systems with different dominated load types and high photovoltaic penetrations. The results demonstrate that selecting the optimal converter size based on net revenue and time of return considerations leads to a balance between maximizing energy savings and minimizing financial payback periods. Furthermore, feeder pair selection based on load profile standard deviation effectively identifies systems that derive the greatest value from MVB2B integration. Finally, an optimized connection point selection approach using a voltage load sensitivity matrix ensures minimal system impact while facilitating efficient power exchange. These findings provide practical insights for the real‐world deployment of MVB2B converters to enhance DER hosting capacity and improve grid resilience.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2020

Guest Editorial: Planning and operation of resilient distribution system for integrated multi-energy

Resilience is the ability of power systems to prepare for and adapt to low-probability, high-impact incidents and withstand and recover rapidly from disruptions. With the ageing of electricity distribution infrastructure and increasing threats of weather-related incidents and natural disasters, the need to effectively enhance the resilience of the electricity distribution system has become urgent and has attracted worldwide attention. Although there are an increasing number of publications related to enhancing resilience strategies, resilience is an emerging concept in power systems. Existing practices are mostly focused on deploying distributed energy resources (DERs) and microgrids, hardening the existing infrastructures and building redundant capacities. However, from a broader perspective, resilience enhancement of power distribution system is a systematic engineering, involving long-term system planning and upgrading (e.g., deployment of smart grid technologies and intelligent switches), short-term proactive scheduling, real-time robust and resilient control of DERs, and post-event restoration and recovery strategies. Based on this point, this Special Issue in IET Energy System Integration focuses on soliciting the most recent and original technologies, scheduling and control strategies for improving the resilience of power distribution system. Eight papers are presented in this Special Issue, covering various aspects related to resilience enhancement of power distribution system, including fault-tolerant frequency measurement, robust scheduling of integrated electricity and district heating systems, robust control of DERs, efficient methods for safety verification as well as novel graph theory-based approach to restore the distribution systems after multiple simultaneous faults. A brief introduction of these 8 papers is provided below.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2010

Estimation of proton distribution by means of three-dimensional reconstruction of prompt gamma rays

In proton therapy, the dose distribution of proton beams in the human body needs to be measured accurately. The distribution of prompt gamma rays emitted from patients during irradiation is strongly associated with the dose distribution of the proton beam. The (three-dimensional) 3D distribution of the prompt gamma rays detected by a single photon emission computed tomography was simulated using a Monte Carlo method. The 3D distribution of the prompt gamma rays was well matched with the dose distribution of the proton beam and was superior to the (two-dimensional) distribution of the prompt gamma rays detected using a conventional gamma camera.

62 RADIOLOGY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE↗
DOE OSTI2014

Statistical mechanics of collisionless orbits. IV. Distribution of angular momentum

It has been shown in previous work that DARKexp, which is a theoretically derived, maximum entropy, one shape parameter model for isotropic collisionless systems, provides very good fits to simulated and observed dark matter halos. Specifically, it fits the energy distribution, N(E), and the density profiles, including the central cusp. Here, we extend DARKexp N(E) to include the distribution in angular momentum, L {sup 2}, for spherically symmetric systems. First, we argue, based on theoretical, semi-analytical, and simulation results, that while dark matter halos are relaxed in energy, they are not nearly as relaxed in angular momentum, which precludes using maximum entropy to uniquely derive N(E, L {sup 2}). Instead, we require that when integrating N(E, L {sup 2}) over squared angular momenta one retrieves the DARKexp N(E). Starting with a general expression for N(E, L {sup 2}) we show how the distribution of particles in L {sup 2} is related to the shape of the velocity distribution function, VDF, and velocity anisotropy profile, β(r). We then demonstrate that astrophysically realistic halos, as judged by the VDF shape and β(r), must have linear or convex distributions in L {sup 2}, for each separate energy bin. The distribution in energy of the most bound particles must be nearly flat, and become more tilted in favor of radial orbits for less bound particles. These results are consistent with numerical simulations and represent an important step toward deriving the full distribution function for spherically symmetric dark matter halos.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS OF SIZES AND FLUXES DETERMINED FROM SUPRA-ARCADE DOWNFLOWS

The frequency distributions of sizes and fluxes of supra-arcade downflows (SADs) provide information about the process of their creation. For example, a fractal creation process may be expected to yield a power-law distribution of sizes and/or fluxes. We examine 120 cross-sectional areas and magnetic flux estimates found by Savage and McKenzie for SADs, and find that (1) the areas are consistent with a log-normal distribution and (2) the fluxes are consistent with both a log-normal and an exponential distribution. Neither set of measurements is compatible with a power-law distribution nor a normal distribution. As a demonstration of the applicability of these findings to improved understanding of reconnection, we consider a simple SAD growth scenario with minimal assumptions, capable of producing a log-normal distribution.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2024

Distributed Automatic Generation Control Considering DPV Using T&D Dynamic Co-Simulation

The increasing adoption of distributed energy resources (DERs) over the last decade warrants a reconsideration of control of generation resources. This paper proposes a distributed Automatic Generation Control (AGC) using transmission-and-distribution (T&D) dynamic co-simulation framework for the efficient DPV frequency regulation services. The co-simulation framework allows AGC units to exchange the information for distributed AGC, based on their adopted communication network topology. As a result, a cost-effective automatic generation control is achieved with DPV and conventional generators. The proposed distributed AGC is based on the gossip algorithm in which the neighboring AGC units share the relevant local information with each other and updates their share of AGC regulation signal. Distributed photovoltaics (DPV) unit contribute to AGC response based on their headroom capacity via DER aggregators. The algorithm is tested on IEEE-14 bus transmission system under conditions of generation failure and random load variation to observe effective frequency regulations service offered by DPVs and other AGC units. The study shows that DPV can effectively participate in AGC with the proposed distributed control framework.

automatic generation control↗
DOE OSTI2024

Distributed Coordination of Networked Microgrids for Voltage Support in Bulk Power Grids

The increasing deployment of distributed energy resources (DERs) and microgrids (MGs) in power distribution systems has enabled the adjustment of reactive power consumption as seen at the substation, which can be used to provide voltage support for the bulk power system (BPS). Leveraging this new capability will provide greater resiliency to the power system as a whole. Here, the goal of this paper is to develop and compare three different algorithms, namely distributed optimal power flow, distributed consensus algorithm, and fully decentralized collaborative autonomy for unbalanced distribution systems for microgrid coordination. These algorithms use networked MGs to support the BPS voltage when a contingency at the bulk grid results in abnormally low voltages, which may be a precursor to voltage collapse. Our comparative analysis includes both qualitative and quantitative assessments of the three algorithms and a discussion of the trade-offs between the decentralized and distributed methods in normal and disrupted conditions. Each algorithm was evaluated on the modified IEEE 13-bus system and a real power distribution system at Chattanooga, Tennessee, that encompasses more than 4500 buses. Each algorithms excels differently and may be suited for different scenarios depending on the condition, operations, and priorities of the power and communication systems.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2023

Privacy-Preserving Robust Consensus for Distributed Microgrid Control Applications

Consensus-based distributed control has been proposed for coordinating distributed energy resources (DERs) in microgrids (MGs). As one key component, distributed average observers are used to estimate the average of a group of reference signals (e.g., voltage, current, or power). State-of-the-art distributed average observers could lead to loss of privacy due to information exchange on the communication channels. The DERs' reference signals, which contain private information, could be inferred by an eavesdropper. In this article, a privacy-preserving distributed average observer is proposed that is based on robust consensus and uses the state decomposition method to preserve privacy. Compared to the existing methods, the proposed observer does not require the knowledge of the reference signal's derivative and gives accurate and smooth estimation, and is thus applicable for MG distributed control applications. A detailed analysis regarding the convergence and privacy properties of the proposed observer is presented. Here, the proposed observer is implemented on hardware controllers and validated in the context of distributed MG control applications through hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) tests.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2018

Coordinated Transmission and Distribution AC Optimal Power Flow

The current separate transmission and distribution energy management system faces multiple challenges associated with integrating distributed generators (DGs) into future grids. These challenges, such as a voltage rise issue resulting in curtailment of DGs, are difficult to solve via the current separate energy management. Thus, coordination between transmission and distribution is suggested, and a coordinated transmission and distribution AC optimal power flow (TDOPF) is proposed in this paper. A mathematical TDOPF model is established and analyzed in a master-slave structure. A heterogeneous decomposition algorithm (HGD), which is inspired by heterogeneous transmission and distribution characteristics, is proposed to solve the TDOPF in a distributed manner. The HGD is compared to other typical multi-area OPF decomposition algorithms and the differences are discussed. Numerical tests verify the benefit of the TDOPF to both transmission and distribution systems. The TDOPF improves economic operations, mitigates voltage rises, and decreases boundary bus mismatches. Hence, more DGs can be accommodated by the grid. In addition, a series of numerical tests indicate that the HGD competitively solves the TDOPF.

decomposition↗
DOE OSTI2018

Multi-Timescale Three-Phase Unbalanced Distribution System Operation With Variable Renewable Generations

This paper proposes a multi-timescale operational approach for a three-phase unbalanced distribution system, which contains hourly scheduling at substation level and minutes power flow operation at feeder level. In the substation scheduling model, the objective is to minimize the system cost with variable renewable generations. The given error distribution model of renewable generation is formulated as a chance constraint, and derived into a deterministic form by Gaussian mixture model (GMM) with genetic algorithm-based expectation-maximization (GAEM). In the feeder scheduling model, the system cost is further reduced with the optimal power flow (OPF) at a timescale of minutes. Considering the nonconvexity of the three-phase unbalanced OPF problem in distribution systems, the semidefinite programming (SDP) is used to relax the problem into a convex problem, and a distributed computation approach is built based on alternating direction method of multiplier (ADMM). The IEEE 123-bus distribution system, DU (University of Denver) campus distribution system, and the IEEE 8500-bus distribution system are used as the test bench for the proposed approach. And the numerical results demonstrate the effectiveness and validity of the proposed method.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2018

A Hierarchical VLSM-Based Demand Response Strategy for Coordinative Voltage Control between Transmission and Distribution Systems

This paper presents a two-stage hierarchical voltage-load sensitivity matrix (VLSM)-based demand response (DR) algorithm for regulating the voltage at distribution feeders while fulfilling the transmission system DR requests. This allows distributed energy resources be aggregated to provide transmission-level services without causing operational issues in the distribution grids. At the beginning of each operation interval, a transmission system controller will issue DR commands to distribution system controllers. In the first stage, the distribution system controller uses a VLSM-based dispatch algorithm to dispatch the available DR resources on the distribution feeder with an objective to minimize the total voltage deviations at the lowest cost. Then, power flow studies are conducted assuming that the DR commands have been executed. If voltage violations are detected, a second-stage VLSM-based DR dispatch will be performed to remove those violations. After that, the upper and lower DR limits calculated for the next operation interval are sent back to the transmission system controller so the transmission optimization algorithm can use them as operational constraints to make subsequent decisions. The DR resources include smart photovoltaic (PV) inverters that can curtail real power and provide reactive power support, controllable loads and capacitor banks. In conclusion, the IEEE 123-bus test system with 5-minute PV and load data is used to evaluate the performance of the algorithm. In conclusion, simulation results show that the proposed algorithm can fulfill the transmission-level DR requests while maintaining the voltage in the distribution system within limits.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2020

Gradient-Based Multi-Area Distribution System State Estimation

The increasing distributed and renewable energy resources and controllable devices in distribution systems make fast distribution system state estimation (DSSE) crucial in system monitoring and control. We consider a large multi-phase distribution system and formulate DSSE as a weighted least squares (WLS) problem. We divide the large distribution system into smaller areas of subtree structure, and by jointly exploring the linearized power flow model and the network topology, we propose a gradient-based multi-area algorithm to exactly and efficiently solve the WLS problem. The proposed algorithm enables distributed and parallel computation of the state estimation problem without compromising any performance. Numerical results on a 4,521-node test feeder show that the designed algorithm features fast convergence and accurate estimation results. Comparison with traditional Gauss-Newton method shows that the proposed method has much better performance in distribution systems with a limited amount of reliable measurement. The real-time implementation of the algorithm tracks time-varying system states with high accuracy.

41 EE - Solar Energy Technologies Office (EE-4S)↗
DOE OSTI2012

Tomotherapy dose distribution verification using MAGIC-f polymer gel dosimetry

Purpose: This paper presents the application of MAGIC-f gel in a three-dimensional dose distribution measurement and its ability to accurately measure the dose distribution from a tomotherapy unit. Methods: A prostate intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) irradiation was simulated in the gel phantom and the treatment was delivered by a TomoTherapy equipment. Dose distribution was evaluated by the R2 distribution measured in magnetic resonance imaging. Results: A high similarity was found by overlapping of isodoses of the dose distribution measured with the gel and expected by the treatment planning system (TPS). Another analysis was done by comparing the relative absorbed dose profiles in the measured and in the expected dose distributions extracted along indicated lines of the volume and the results were also in agreement. The gamma index analysis was also applied to the data and a high pass rate was achieved (88.4% for analysis using 3%/3 mm and of 96.5% using 4%/4 mm). The real three-dimensional analysis compared the dose-volume histograms measured for the planning volumes and expected by the treatment planning, being the results also in good agreement by the overlapping of the curves. Conclusions: These results show that MAGIC-f gel is a promise for tridimensional dose distribution measurements.

61 RADIATION PROTECTION AND DOSIMETRY↗
DOE OSTI2012

Feasibility Study: Ductless Hydronic Distribution Systems with Fan Coil Delivery

Hydronic distribution systems have a long history, and are widely used in commercial buildings. As with mini-split heat pumps, hydronic systems using small terminal fan coils have the potential to provide high-quality comfort to homes that have small heating and cooling loads, but at a lower cost and with greater flexibility. These “ductless hydronic” distribution systems eliminate space requirements needed for ducting, eliminate duct thermal losses, and are easy to zone. Since heat pump chiller-heaters can be charged with refrigerant at the factory, hydronic systems also avoid refrigerant system faults such as incorrect charge and inadequate evacuation of lines that can lead to sub-standard performance. Other advantages include: reduction in the amount of energy required to deliver heating and cooling, reduced equipment cycling, and the potential for incorporating energy storage for peak load avoidance and demand response. Ductless hydronic systems are best suited for new homes, but with the relative ease of installing piping in attic spaces (for example under attic insulation), they are also suitable for existing homes that have old, leaky, and poorly insulated ducts. With a broader and more affordable product offering from manufacturers, installation guidelines, and contractor training, this method of distribution has significant potential to meet the space conditioning needs of high performance homes. The primary objectives of this study are to estimate potential energy savings relative to conventional ducted air distribution, and to identify equipment requirements, costs, and barriers. The analysis focuses on ductless hydronic delivery systems that use water-to-air terminal units in each zone. This system type is applicable in all climate regions and can provide sensible and latent cooling and/or heating using a single hot and chilled water source such as a heat pump, or a separate water heater and chiller. Results of TRNSYS modeling indicate that annual heating and cooling energy use (site and source) can be reduced by up to 22% when substituting pipes, pump, small distributed fan coils, and a water-to-air heat pump for the ducts, air handler, indoor coil, and conventional air-to-air heat pump unit of similar rating as the air-to-water unit. Of the 22% savings, on average 36% is attributable to the lower energy required by pumps and small fans vs. air handler blowers, and 64% to the reduced losses from pipes as compared to ducts. Using the modeled energy savings and estimated costs, hydronic distribution appears to be economically viable in three of the four climates evaluated. Other current field studies of air-to-water heat pumps coupled to radiant floor systems are demonstrating heat pump performance that exceeds seasonal performance calculated using a standard heat pump performance map (German, 2011a, German, 2011b). Hydronic distribution systems can meet sensible and latent cooling needs in all climates. Major barriers to widespread application include the lack of low-cost, small, ceiling-mounted fan coils, and the limited availability and higher cost of air-to-water heat pumps. The latter could be overcome by the production of an add-on refrigerant-to-water conversion kit that could be used to adapt any heat pump to serve as a water chiller-heater. Development of accurate performance maps and additional data on field performance are areas that should be targeted by future research.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2016

Assessing the Future of Distributed Wind: Opportunities for Behind-the-Meter Projects

Wind power is one of the fastest growing sources of new electricity generation in the United States. Cumulative installed capacity was more than 74,000 megawatts (MW) at year-end 2015 and wind power supplied 4.7% of total 2015 U.S. electricity generation. Despite the growth of the wind power industry, the distributed wind market has remained limited. Cumulative installations of distributed wind through 2015 totaled 934 MW. This first-of-a-kind exploratory analysis characterizes the future opportunity for behind-the-meter distributed wind, serving primarily rural or suburban homes, farms, and manufacturing facilities. This work focuses only on the grid-connected, behind-the-meter subset of the broader distributed wind market. We estimate this segment to be approximately half of the 934 MW of total installed distributed wind capacity at year-end 2015. Potential from other distributed wind market segments including systems installed in front of the meter (e.g., community wind) and in remote, off-grid locations is not assessed in this analysis and therefore, would be additive to results presented here. These other distributed wind market segments are not considered in this initial effort because of their relatively unique economic and market attributes.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2016

Photovoltaic Impact Assessment of Smart Inverter Volt-VAR Control on Distribution System Conservation Voltage Reduction and Power Quality

This report presents an impact assessment study of distributed photovoltaic (PV) with smart inverter Volt-VAR control on conservation voltage reduction (CVR) energy savings and distribution system power quality. CVR is a methodology of flattening and lowering a distribution system voltage profile in order to conserve energy. Traditional CVR relies on operating utility voltage regulators and switched capacitors. However, with the increased penetration of distributed PV systems, smart inverters provide the new opportunity to control local voltage and power factor by regulating the reactive power output, leading to a potential increase in CVR energy savings. This report proposes a methodology to implement CVR scheme by operating voltage regulators, capacitors, and autonomous smart inverter Volt-VAR control in order to achieve increased CVR benefit. Power quality is an important consideration when operating a distribution system, especially when implementing CVR. It is easy to measure the individual components that make up power quality, but a comprehensive method to incorporate all of these values into a single score has yet to be undertaken. As a result, this report proposes a power quality scoring mechanism to measure the relative power quality of distribution systems using a single number, which is aptly named the 'power quality score' (PQS). Both the CVR and PQS methodologies were applied to two distribution system models, one obtained from the Hawaiian Electric Company (HECO) and another obtained from Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E). These two models were converted to the OpenDSS platform using previous model conversion tools that were developed by NREL. Multiple scenarios including various PV penetration levels and smart inverter densities were simulated to analyze the impact of smart inverter Volt-VAR support on CVR energy savings and feeder power quality. In order to analyze the CVR benefit and PQS, an annual simulation was conducted for each scenario.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

FERC Order No. 2222 and Considerations for Distributed Wind

The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) issued Order No. 2222 in October 2020. The rule directs Regional Transmission Organizations and Independent System Operators (ISOs) to amend their tariffs and participation models to accommodate heterogeneous distributed energy resource (DER) aggregations in the wholesale energy markets that they operate, including capacity, energy, and ancillary service markets. The Commission issued the rule to better capture the benefits provided by DERs deployed in the United States, whose use has been expanding rapidly. The Commission defines DERs as “any resource located on the distribution system, any subsystem thereof or behind a customer meter,” including but not limited to “electric storage resources, distributed generation, demand response, energy efficiency, thermal storage, and electric vehicles and their supply equipment.” The rule aims to increase DER participation in wholesale markets by allowing the creation of DER aggregations, in which multiple DERs that are too small to meet minimum capacity requirements for wholesale markets individually would be able to participate in markets as a single unit. As of June 20, 2023, all ISOs have filed initial compliance plans and a number have begun implementation. Compliance dates range from 2024 to 2029, with Midcontinent ISO having the latest date of compliance proposed for 2029. Southwest Power Pool still has an outstanding date, having no final order yet from FERC, but a target date of the third quarter of calendar year 2025. The rule, which is technology agnostic and requires ISOs to create participation plans that accommodate different DERs, provides an opportunity for distributed wind market expansion. In addition, distributed wind can bring benefits to heterogenous DER aggregations. These benefits include resource diversity (i.e., a complementary generation profile to other types of distributed generation), its small footprint and ability to be co-located with load, and its potential to provide frequency response, voltage support, and black start services, among other ancillary services. This report provides a status update on FERC Order No. 2222, the current state of ISO compliance, and information relevant to the distributed wind industry as DER aggregators and other stakeholders expand their participation to wholesale energy markets.

17 WIND ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2019

Distributed Reinforcement Learning with ADMM-RL

This paper presents a new algorithm for distributed Reinforcement Learning (RL). RL is an artificial intelligence (AI) control strategy such that controls for highly nonlinear systems over multi-step time horizons may be learned by experience, rather than directly computed on the fly by optimization. Here we introduce ADMM-RL, a combination of the Alternating Direction Method of Multipliers (ADMM) and reinforcement learning that allows for integrating learned controllers as subsystems in generally convergent distributed control applications. ADMM has become the workhorse algorithm for distributed control, combining the advantages of dual decomposition (namely, enabling decoupled, parallel, distributed solution) with the advantages of the method of multipliers (namely, convexification/stability). Our ADMM-RL algorithm replaces one or more of the subproblems in ADMM with several steps of RL. When the nested iterations converge, we are left with a pretrained subsolver that can potentially increase the efficiency of the deployed distributed controller by orders of magnitude. We illustrate ADMM-RL in both distributed wind farm yaw control and distributed grid-aware demand aggregation for water heaters.

ADMM↗