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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 1,099 records · Page 61
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2020

Expression of the Trichoderma reesei expansin-like protein, swollenin, in poplar results in biomass with improved sugar release by enzymatic hydrolysis

Ethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass has been considered an alternative to corn-based ethanol and fossil fuel. However, the secondary cell wall structure prevents efficient degradation of cellulose. Expression of cell wall degrading enzymes has been suggested as one solution to generate suitable feedstocks for lignocellulosic ethanol production. Swollenin (SWO), originating from Trichoderma reesei, disrupts cellulose structure with low-level hydrolytic activity to the glucan chain. Previously, characterization of T. reesei SWO has been carried out in multiple microorganisms and tobacco. This study heterologously overexpressed T. reesei SWO in hybrid poplar (Populus tremula × alba), a promising feedstock for biofuel production, under the control of either the constitutive Cauliflower Mosaic Virus 35S (CaMV 35S) promoter or the putative vascular tissue specific Subterranean Clover Stunt Virus S7 (SCSV) promoter. Transgenic poplar lines with high or moderate SWO expression level showed abnormal growth and reduced biomass production, along with increased glucose and reduced lignin contents. Increased cellulose crystallinity was observed in two transgenic events. This study also investigated the effect of in planta SWO expression on cellulose saccharification efficiency and found that transgenic events improved glucan conversion rates compared to wild type poplar. The results suggest SWO-overexpressing transgenic poplar lines could be a potential feedstock for ethanol production.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Recent developments in pretreatment technologies on lignocellulosic biomass: Effect of key parameters, technological improvements, and challenges

Lignocellulosic biomass is an inexpensive renewable source that can be used to produce biofuels and bioproducts. The recalcitrance nature of biomass hampers polysaccharide accessibility for enzymes and microbes. Several pretreatment methods have been developed for the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass into value-added products. Yet, these pretreatment methods also produce a wide range of secondary compounds, which are inhibitory to enzymes and microorganisms. The selection of an effective and efficient pretreatment method discussed in the review and its process optimization can significantly reduce the production of inhibitory compounds and may lead to enhanced production of fermentable sugars and biochemicals. Furthermore, evolutionary and genetic engineering approaches are being used for the improvement of microbial tolerance towards inhibitors. Advancements in pretreatment and detoxification technologies may help to increase the productivity of lignocellulose-based biorefinery. Here, we discuss the recent advancements in lignocellulosic biomass pretreatment technologies and strategies for the removal of inhibitors.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2020

A hybrid cyt c maturation system enhances the bioelectrical performance of engineered Escherichia coli by improving the rate-limiting step

Bioelectronic devices can use electron flux to enable communication between biotic components and abiotic electrodes. We have modified Escherichia coli to electrically interact with electrodes by expressing the cytochrome c from Shewanella oneidensis MR-1. However, we observe inefficient electrical performance, which we hypothesize is due to the limited compatibility of the E. coli cytochrome c maturation (Ccm) systems with MR-1 cytochrome c. Here we test whether the bioelectronic performance of E. coli can be improved by constructing hybrid Ccm systems containing protein domains from both E. coli and S. oneidensis MR-1. The hybrid CcmH increased cytochrome c expression by increasing the abundance of CymA 60%, while only slightly changing the abundance of the other cytochromes c. Electrochemical measurements showed that the overall current from the hybrid ccm strain increased 121% relative to the wildtype ccm strain, with an electron flux per cell of 12.3 ± 0.3 fA·cell -1 . Additionally, the hybrid ccm strain doubled its electrical response with the addition of exogenous flavin, and quantitative analysis of this demonstrates CymA is the rate-limiting step in this electron conduit. These results demonstrate that this hybrid Ccm system can enhance the bioelectrical performance of the cyt c expressing E. coli, allowing the construction of more efficient bioelectronic devices.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Trait drift in microalgae and applications for strain improvement

Microalgae are increasingly used to generate a wide range of commercial products, and there is growing evidence that microalgae-based products can be produced sustainably. However, industrial production of microalgal biomass is not as developed as other biomanufacturing platform technologies. In addition, results of bench-scale research often fail to translate to large-scale or mass production systems. This disconnect may result from trait drift and evolution occurring, through time, in response to unique drivers in each environment, such as cultivation regimes, weather, and pests. Moreover, outdoor and indoor cultivation of microalgae has the potential to impose negative selection pressures, which makes the maintenance of desired traits a challenge. In this context, this review sheds the light on our current understanding of trait drift and evolution in microalgae. Here, we delineate the basics of phenotype plasticity and evolution, with a focus on how microalgae respond under various conditions. In addition, we review techniques that exploit phenotypic plasticity and evolution for strain improvement in view of industrial commercial applications, highlighting associated advantages and shortcomings. Finally, we suggest future research directions and recommendations to overcome unwanted trait drift and evolution in microalgae cultivation.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

Carbon aerogels with integrated engineered macroporous architectures for improved mass transport

Carbon aerogels (CAs) combine unique properties including ultra-high surface area, high electrical conductivity, corrosion resistance, and robust mechanical properties making them ideal materials for electrochemical applications. Traditional CA synthesis results in isotropic, random nanoporous networks that work well for applications relying on diffusional mass transport. However, many applications would benefit from integration of engineered macroporous network structures that enable directed pressure-gradient-driven mass transport. In this study, we report on using 3D-printed sacrificial polymeric templates to generate templated CAs (t-CAs) with integrated engineered nonrandom macroporous network structures. Specifically, we used projection micro-stereo-lithography (PμSL) and two-photon polymerization direct laser writing (2PP-DLW) to fabricate millimeter-to-centimeter-sized 3D sacrificial polymeric templates with features ranging from tens of microns (PμSL) to 100s of nanometers (2PP-DLW). T-CAs were fabricated by infiltrating the templates with resorcinol-formaldehyde (RF) precursor solution, followed by carbonization at 1050 °C to simultaneously convert the RF gel to a CA and decompose the 3D-printed template, leaving an embedded templated macroporous network structure behind. X-ray computer tomography confirms integration of the macroporous architecture defined by the template. The templated macroporous architecture improves mass transport in t-CAs compared to traditional bulk CA as demonstrated by more uniform activation and their response in electrochemical cyclic voltammetry and galvanostatic charge-discharge tests.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Chemical changes from N-doped graphene and Metal-Organic Frameworks to N-G/MOF composites for improved electrocatalytic activity

Integrating N doped graphene (N G) with Metal Organic Frameworks (MOFs) enhances catalytic activity for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), often exceeding both the performances of their precursors and, in some cases, even PGM based catalysts. However, the factors driving this improved catalytic activity in N G/MOF composites remain unexplored, particularly from the perspective of the chemical changes. To investigate the chemical changes in N G and MOF upon their integration and the implications of these changes on ORR catalytic activity, an N G/MOF was synthesized from N G with a MOF (ZIF 8) following a mechanochemical wet ball milling process. The N G, ZIF 8, and N G/MOF samples were examined for changes in elemental composition, chemical state of carbon, different nitrogen and carbon bonds, and other chemical interactions. In the N G/MOF catalyst, compared to its N G and ZIF 8 precursors, the relative oxygen content increased, indicating the formation of additional oxygen containing groups. The C 1s peak shifted to a lower binding energy in N G/MOF, suggesting changes in the overall chemical or oxidation state of the carbon atoms. Besides, the increase in pyridinic N functional groups in N G/MOF points to the formation of additional active sites. Furthermore, the formation of C Zn bonds in N G/MOF suggests the probable emergence of single atom Zn sites, while the increase in C=O bonds points to the formation of carboxyl or carbonyl groups. These chemical changes could be linked to the enhanced electrocatalytic activity of the N G/MOF composite for ORR. In conclusion, this study may also be beneficial for other research focused on developing composite catalysts involving various N G and MOF materials.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Improving anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge to renewable natural gas by the Advanced Pretreatment & Anaerobic Digestion technology (APAD): Pilot testing

Conventional anaerobic digestion (AD) of sewage sludge in wastewater treatment facilities suffers from low carbon conversion efficiency (CCE = 40%) and requires costly CO2 removal for injection of the produced CH4 into the natural gas grid. To address these limitations, we developed the Advanced Pretreatment and Anaerobic Digestion (APAD) process. This integrates Advanced Wet Oxidation & Steam Explosion (AWOEx) pretreatment of residual sludge after conventional AD, followed by biogas upgradation using a novel methanogenic strain, Methanothermobacter wolfeii BSEL, converting CO2 with H2 into CH4 or RNG (renewable natural gas). Pilot-scale results demonstrated that AWOEx pretreatment achieved a CCE of 62% for the residual sludge, 68% higher than the conventional AD process. The CH4 production was further increased by 79%. Subsequent biogas upgrading in a trickling bed reactor with H2 further enhanced total methane output by 100% and resulted in a final CO2 concentration of =3%. The integrated APAD process achieved a remarkable overall CCE of 83%, resulting in a 200% increase in RNG output when compared to conventional AD. Techno-economic analysis revealed that AWOEx pretreatment alone reduced sludge treatment costs from $494 to $253 per ton of dry solids. The complete APAD process incurred a higher cost of treatment of $530 per ton, driven by prices for bottled H2. The process did, however, show gains in energy recovery and decarbonization. Renewable H2, which may reduce in price in the near future, can positively improve the economics of biogas upgrading for the APAD process.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)↗
DOE OSTI2022

Three-dimensional feature matching improves coverage for single-cell proteomics based on ion mobility filtering

Single-cell proteomics (scProteomics) promises to advance our understanding of cell functions within complex biological systems. However, a major challenge of current methods is their inability to identify and provide accurate quantitative information for low abundance proteins. Herein, we describe an ion mobility-enhanced mass spectrometry acquisition and peptide identification method, TIFF (Transferring Identification based on FAIMS Filtering), to improve the sensitivity and accuracy of label-free scProteomics. TIFF extends the ion accumulation times for peptide ions by filtering out singly charged ions. The peptide identities are assigned by a three-dimensional MS1 feature matching approach (retention time, accurate mass, and FAIMS compensation voltage). TIFF method enabled unbiased proteome analysis to a depth of >1,700 proteins in single HeLa cells with >1,100 proteins consistently identified. As a demonstration, we applied the TIFF method to obtain temporal proteome profiles of >150 single murine macrophage cells during lipopolysaccharide stimulation and identified time-dependent proteome changes.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Synthesis of Hf 6 Ta 2 O 17 superstructure via spark plasma sintering for improved oxidation resistance of multi-component ultra-high temperature ceramics

Ultra-high temperature ceramics (UHTCs) have shown aspiration to overcome challenges in the thermal protection system (TPS) by designing new materials referred to as multi-component UHTCs (MC-UHTCs) in the compositional space. MC-UHTCs have shown remarkable improvement in oxidation resistance due to the formation of the Hf6Ta2O17 superstructure during plasma exposure. Herein, the Hf 6 Ta 2 O 17 superstructure is synthesized via a solid-state reaction between HfO 2 and Ta 2 O 5 powder mixtures during spark plasma sintering (SPS). The compositions chosen are 50 vol% of HfO 2 -50 vol% of Ta 2 O 5 (50HO-50TO) and 70 vol% of HfO 2 -30 vol% of Ta 2 O 5 (70HO-30TO). The phase quantification via Rietveld analysis showed Hf 6 Ta 2 O 17 as a principal phase with some residual Ta 2 O 5 phase in both the samples. The high-temperature thermal stability of the samples was evaluated using high-velocity plasma jet exposure for up to 3 min. 50HO-50TO was able to withstand the intense plasma condition, which is attributed to the higher content of the Hf 6 Ta 2 O 17 phase (~84%) and lower strain in the Ta 2 O 5 phase. The augmentation in the Hf 6 Ta 2 O 17 phase to 94.7% (in 50HO-50TO) post plasma exposure has been attributed to the invariant transformation from a liquid state to Hf 6 Ta 2 O 17 at temperatures >2500 °C during testing. The mechanical integrity is elucidated from the insignificant change in the hardness ~13.3 GPa before and 11.2 GPa after plasma exposure of the 50HO-50TO sample. As a result, the Hf 6 Ta 2 O 17 superstructure's thermo-mechanical stability suggests developing novel oxidation-resistant MC-UHTCs in compositional space for reusable space vehicle applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Improving productivity and stability for CO 2 hydrogenation by using pincer-ligated Mn complexes with hemilabile ligands

Pincer ligands are widely used to support transition metal catalysts, but first-row systems often deactivate too quickly for widespread use. Here, pincer ligands bearing an additional hemilabile donor were designed to stabilize Mn catalysts for CO 2 hydrogenation to formate. Ligands of the type (RCH 2 CH 2 )N(CH 2 CH 2 P i Pr 2 ) 2 ( iPr PN R P; R = OMe, CH 2 OMe, NMe 2 , P i Pr 2 ) were synthesized and coordinated to Mn to form complexes of the type ( iPr PN R P)Mn(CO) 2 H. Their performance was compared to {MeN(CH 2 CH 2 P i Pr 2 ) 2 }Mn(CO) 2 H, which lacks a pendant donor. The pendant donor identity and arm length strongly influenced catalytic activity, but all pendant arm containing systems extended catalyst lifetime. Notably, ( iPr PN CH2OMe P)Mn(CO) 2 H achieved turnover frequencies of 158,000 h -1 and turnover numbers of 838,000, exceeding most state-of-the-art catalysts. Mechanistic studies revealed that hemilabile coordination enhances stability by avoiding deactivation, although excessive binding can lead to inactive states. Here, this work demonstrates hemilabile donors dramatically improve pincer-based Mn catalysts and provides design principles for broader applications.

CO2 hydrogenation↗
DOE OSTI2023

Fourier-DeepONet: Fourier-enhanced deep operator networks for full waveform inversion with improved accuracy, generalizability, and robustness

In this article, full waveform inversion (FWI) infers the subsurface structure information from seismic waveform data by solving a non-convex optimization problem. Data-driven FWI has been increasingly studied with various neural network architectures to improve accuracy and computational efficiency. Nevertheless, the applicability of pre-trained neural networks is severely restricted by potential discrepancies between the source function used in the field survey and the one utilized during training. Here, we develop a Fourier-enhanced deep operator network (Fourier-DeepONet) for FWI with the generalization of seismic sources, including the frequencies and locations of sources. Specifically, we employ the Fourier neural operator as the decoder of DeepONet, and we utilize source parameters as one input of Fourier-DeepONet, facilitating the resolution of FWI with variable sources. To test Fourier-DeepONet, we develop three new and realistic FWI benchmark datasets (FWI-F, FWI-L, and FWI-FL) with varying source frequencies, locations, or both. Our experiments demonstrate that compared with existing data-driven FWI methods, Fourier-DeepONet obtains more accurate predictions of subsurface structures in a wide range of source parameters. Moreover, the proposed Fourier-DeepONet exhibits superior robustness when handling data with Gaussian noise or missing traces and sources with Gaussian noise, paving the way for more reliable and accurate subsurface imaging across diverse real conditions.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2020

Improving PGM-free ORR Electrocatalyst Activity: Suggestions from DFT Studies

In this opinion, the limitations of platinum group metal–free oxygen reduction reaction electrocatalyst activity based on scaling laws and resulting Balandin-Sabatier volcano plots are presented. Previous theoretical work aimed at overcoming this limitation is discussed. In this work, a theoretical study of a novel approach toward catalyst activity improvement, dynamic strain engineering, is proposed and tested for a possible platinum group metal–free oxygen reduction reaction active site. It is shown that not only can this approach produce thermodynamic limiting potentials well beyond scaling law relationship limits but also be capable of doing so in an energy-efficient manner.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Autoignition of cyclohexane at low-to-intermediate temperatures: Rapid compression machine experiments and improved comprehensive chemical kinetic model

Cycloalkanes are an important class of hydrocarbons found in conventional and alternative transportation fuels. Being one of the simplest practical cycloalkanes, cyclohexane is often used as a surrogate in studies to understand the oxidation, ignition, and sooting characteristics of cycloalkanes more broadly. Although cyclohexane has been extensively studied, very limited datasets for cyclohexane oxidation at low-to-intermediate temperatures are available in the literature. Moreover, the literature autoignition data from rapid compression machines (RCMs) did not provide information on volume histories or experimental heat transfer characteristics which can significantly impact model predictions, thereby hindering the detailed validation of chemical kinetic models. It has also been observed that the cyclohexane kinetic models developed so far are not able to predict the literature data across a wide range of operating and mixture conditions. Hence, further studies are recommended to understand and improve model predictions for cyclohexane oxidation. In this study, RCM experiments were conducted using cyclohexane/air mixtures at varying compressed pressures (P C =15, 20, and 30 bar), equivalence ratios (ϕ=0.5, 1.0, and 2.0), and compressed temperatures (T C =670–960 K). The current RCM results of cyclohexane were found to complement well with the literature data, with the first-stage IDTs at high pressures and volume histories at all test conditions being first reported for better development and validation of chemical kinetic models. Additionally, a detailed chemical kinetic model for the cyclohexane oxidation has been developed and validated using both newly acquired experimental IDTs in this study and literature experimental studies (IDTs in RCMs and STs, species profiles in jet-stirred reactors, and laminar burning velocities). Unlike literature models, the proposed model was observed to provide an overall better prediction for experimental results over a wide range of conditions. Chemical kinetic analysis of the developed model was further conducted to identify the reaction pathways controlling the autoignition of cyclohexane.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

A crystal plasticity model with an atomistically informed description of grain boundary sliding for improved predictions of deformation fields

Crystal plasticity (CP) is a powerful meso-scale technique for deformation modeling in polycrystalline materials. Crystal plasticity models typically do not include an explicit description of grain boundary (GB) sliding, which could lead to inaccurate predictions of strain distributions, especially in the vicinity of GBs. In the present study, a CP model is developed that includes GB sliding as an additional deformation mechanism and models the interaction between slip and GB sliding. Atomistic simulations are used to formulate the constitutive model for GB sliding and its interaction with incident slip. The deformation fields and structure of the GBs are obtained directly from experimental characterization and are faithfully reproduced as bicrystal systems for molecular dynamics simulations. The GBs are modeled as random-type (non-coincidence, asymmetrical) boundaries as observed from experimental data. The underlying atomistic-scale mechanism for pure sliding of random GBs was found to be analogous to fluid-flow. The interaction between incident slip and a sliding GB caused local increases in stress concentration, which further led to a momentary increase in the local sliding rate. The displacement profiles at the sliding GBs computed from the CP model with sliding accommodation are 38% more accurate than the baseline CP model as quantified by the mean squared error between the simulations and experiment. Here these results help improve the sophistication and accuracy of deformation modeling by including physics-based descriptions for GB sliding and its interaction with slip, eventually leading to more reliable predictions of micromechanical quantities.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Coupling localized Noah-MP-Crop model with the WRF model improved dynamic crop growth simulation across Northeast China

Croplands play a critical role in regulating the energy and moisture exchanges between the land surface and atmosphere. However, the interactions between cropland and climate are usually poorly represented due to a lack of detailed representation in crop types and field management. Here, we coupled the Noah-MP-Crop model with the state-of-the-art Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model to explore and evaluate the crop growth dynamics in response to climate variations across Northeast China. The default parameters of the crop model were not exactly suitable for the agricultural ecosystems in Northeast China. The detailed cropland distribution, and crop phenology parameters including growing degree days (GDD) and planting (harvesting) date were first created using multi-source remote sensing products and reanalysis data, and was then successfully used to simulate the growth and yield for corn and soybean and associated energy exchanges. We also optimized and calibrated other crop parameters using the time-series of the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) land surface products. The modified crop model substantially improved the simulation of crop growth, plant physiology, and biomass accumulation for both corn and soybean. Coupling the localized dynamic crop model into the WRF led to considerable decreases in the simulated mean-absolute-errors (MAEs) and biases of the leaf area index, evapotranspiration, and gross primary production compared with the MODIS observed values. Compared with the statistical yield from each province, the modified crop model underestimated the corn yield from 11.1% to 48.6%, whereas overestimated the soybean yield from 16.5% to 162.6%.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2026

Carbon fiber design improvements based on economic models

Circular fiber geometries are predominant in commercial carbon fiber material systems, but the use of this fiber shape has numerous limitations. Circular geometries have continuous symmetry, which is helpful for various processing considerations, but also have the largest possible maximum diffusion thickness for a given fiber area. This characteristic means that circular carbon fibers always have the highest material processing cost and lowest production throughput compared to any other fiber shape with the same area and tow count. To quantify material cost and other benefits for non-circular carbon fiber geometries, process models for polyacrylonitrile based carbon fiber production are developed in relationship to the carbon fiber shape, size, and tow count. For a given fiber shape, precursor production costs are shown to favor maximizing fiber size while conversion costs are minimized by the smallest fiber size. These competing cost trends result in a numerically optimal fiber size for a given shape and tow count, while both cost components are decreased by increasing tow count. Cost–performance tradeoffs for three lobe fiber geometries are studied by supplementing the cost trends with a numerical failure model to predict compressive strength for discrete shape variants. The shape selection is shown to be more sensitive to variations in cost than compressive strength while suboptimal shape designs can improve manufacturing robustness and achievable fiber volume fractions. Finally, an optimal three lobe carbon fiber is identified that balances the set of considerations while reducing costs and embodied energy and increasing production throughput compared to a commercial carbon fiber.

Carbon fiber↗
DOE OSTI2020

Sulfuric Acid Improves the Reactivity of Zeolites via Dealumination

The demand for supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), like fly ash, slag, and silica fume, is projected to rise over the next few decades. However, global decarbonization efforts, such as decommissioning of coal-fired power plants, will limit the supply of SCMs. Therefore, alternative SCM sources are a critical need for the cement and concrete industry. However, the high crystallinity of zeolites limits their pozzolanic reactivity. The goal of this work was to improve the reactivity of two common zeolites, namely clinoptilolite and SSZ-13, by treating them with sulfuric acid. The treatment enhanced zeolite reactivity via dealumination and decreased particle sizes, which led to increased reactivity with calcium hydroxide, as indicated by a 42.0% increase in reaction heat measured by isothermal calorimetry. Here, we elucidate mechanistic understanding that smaller particle sizes induced by acid treatment accelerated peak heat evolution, while free aluminates from dealumination increased heat via direct reaction with aqueous Ca 2+ .

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Optimization of matrix viscosity improves polypropylene fiber dispersion and properties of engineered cementitious composites

Engineered cementitious composites (ECC) is a durable cementitious material with high tensile ductility and strain-hardening characteristics. Although considered as a cost-effective fiber for ECC, polypropylene (PP) fiber is reportedly difficult to disperse in mortar matrix due to its high aspect ratio and hydrophobicity. In this study, the matrix viscosity of a low-carbon ECC based on limestone calcined clay cement was tailored as a variable to improve PP fiber dispersion under a pre-determined mixing protocol. The effect of matrix viscosity on the composite fresh and hardened properties was investigated experimentally. Results suggested an optimal range of matrix viscosity (10.3–11.5 Pa . s) favors the composite tensile strength and strain capacity at 28 days. At the optimal state with a 0.1 % viscosity modifying admixture (VMA)-to-binder mass ratio, PP-ECC achieved 7.0 % tensile strain capacity and 3.5 MPa ultimate tensile strength. When matrix viscosity falls outside the desired range, both ultimate tensile strength and strain capacity were diminished. By tailoring the VMA dosage, the matrix viscosity can be adjusted for desired fiber dispersion, workability, and mechanical properties. Finally, the findings of this study provide a technical reference for the practical design and application of PP-ECC.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗