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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 1,099 records · Page 61
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2026

Topographic Characterization of Niobium Films on Copper for SRF Applications

Niobium films on copper substrates are being actively developed as a low-cost alternative to bulk niobium for superconducting radio-frequency (SRF) cavities, offering superior thermal conductivity, reduced material cost, and the potential for scalable cavity fabrication. The performance of such films can be limited by imperfect surfaces that reduce the peak achievable magnetic field. Nb films deposited under varied electron cyclotron resonance conditions were characterized via atomic force microscopy. The films exhibit a corrugated surface morphology which can be characterized by the depth of the corrugation, slope angle, and standard roughness parameters. The influence of this surface roughness on field limitations is examined within the framework of London theory. These measurements and models aid in understanding how ECR deposition conditions influence the nanometer-scale roughness of Nb films on Cu and its impact on high-field SRF cavity performance.

Redman, Brandi [Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, VA (U↗
NASA NTRS1972

The mechanism of grain growth in ceramics

The theory of grain boundary migration as a thermally activated process is reviewed, the basic mechanisms in ceramics being the same as in metals. However, porosity and non-stochiometry in ceramic materials give an added dimension to the theory and make quantitative treatment of real systems rather complex. Grain growth is a result of several simultaneous (and sometimes interacting) processes; these are most easily discussed separately, but the overall rate depends on their interaction. Sufficient insight into the nature of rate controlling diffusion mechanisms is necessary before a qualitative understanding of boundary mobility can be developed.

Kapadia, C. M.↗
NASA NTRS1974

Primitive control of cellular metabolism

It is pointed out that control substances must have existed from the earliest times in the evolution of life and that the same control mechanisms must exist today. The investigation reported is concerned with the concept that carbon dioxide is a primitive regulator of cell function. The effects of carbon dioxide on cellular materials are examined, taking into account questions of solubilization, dissociation, changes of charge, stabilization, structural changes, wettability, the exclusion of other gases, the activation of compounds, changes in plasticity, and changes in membrane permeability.

Mitz, M. A.↗
NASA NTRS1979

Closed-ecology life support systems /CELSS/ for long-duration, manned missions

Studies were conducted to scope the principal areas of technology that can contribute to the development of closed-ecology life support systems (CELSS). Such systems may be required for future space activities, such as space stations, manufacturing facilities, or colonies. A major feature of CELSS is the regeneration of food from carbon in waste materials. Several processes, using biological and/or physico-chemical components, have been postulated for closing the recycle loop. At the present time, limits of available technical information preclude the specification of an optimum scheme. Nevertheless, the most significant technical requirements can be determined by way of an iterative procedure of formulating, evaluating and comparing various closed-system scenario. The functions features and applications of this systems engineering procedure are discussed.

Modell, M.↗
NASA NTRS1982

Late-stage summit activity of Martian shield volcanoes

The preservation of morphologically fresh lava flows which pre-date the most recent episodes of caldera collapse at the summits of Ascraeus, Arsia and Olympus Montes indicates that explosive eruptions were not associated with this stage of Tharsis shield volcanism. The existence of resurfaced floor segments, complex wrinkle ridges, and lava terraces within the summit craters suggests that lava lakes comprised the dominant form of the intra-caldera activity. Multiple collapse episodes on Ascraeus and Olympus Montes are indicated by the nested summit craters. The most plausible cause of caldera collapse appears to be large-scale sub-terminal effusive activity, which is corroborated by the previously recognized existence of large lava flows on the flanks of these volcanoes. Due to the implied sequence of large-scale explosive (silicic) volcanism followed by effusive (basaltic) activity, it appears highly unlikely that ignimbrites or other forms of pyroclastic flows (previously proposed as possible deposits within the Olympus Mons aureole material) were ever erupted from the Tharsis Montes.

Mouginis-Mark, P. J.↗
DOE OSTI2026

Computationally designed coiled coil ‘bundlemers’ as model colloidal nanoparticles for solution assembly and materials design (Final Report)

As a collaborative team at the University of Delaware and the University of Pennsylvania, Kloxin, Pochan and Saven designed new biomimetic nanomaterials de novo, leveraging a variety of complementary areas of expertise: computational design of biopolymers (Saven at the University of Pennsylvania), and synthesis and characterization (Kloxin and Pochan at the University of Delaware). Overall activities included: sequence-specific peptide synthesis; covalent crosslinking; noncovalent assembly; site-specific functionalization; and nanostructural characterization using electron microscopy and solution-phase (x-ray and neutron) scattering. Using natural and non-natural amino acids, the team created modular, functional peptide building blocks for elaboration of new nanostructured materials. Ultimately, the development of robust peptide-based, building blocks provides tools for researchers to readily produce complex nanomaterial structures in a wide range of applications. The project had three, interconnecting goals in an effort to provide the broader scientific community with a new peptide-based paradigm for materials design and characterization. First, we further developed the coiled-coil bundle-based toolbox (otherwise known as the ‘bundlemer’ toolbox) via computational design with experimental bundle assembly verification. Second, we developed new uses of covalent interactions, in addition to desired physical (noncovalent) interactions, to assemble bundlemers into 1-D polymer chains with targeted chain rigidity, length, and dispersity. Thirds, we used the above designs to experimentally realize (physical or covalent) polymers to target the creation of liquid crystals or to realize interparticle assembly into nanoporous lattices. The close integration of the three groups was instrumental in success of the biomolecular materials design, formation, and understanding for future designs.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

FY24 Task 5: Leachate Disposition

Directly feeding sludge solids to the high-level waste (HLW) Waste Treatment Plant represents an alternative flowsheet seeking to initiate sludge processing as soon as possible. Key processing functions previously captured during baseline pretreatment operations include leaching and washing prior to solids concentration. These operations should be considered in the potential direct feed flowsheets to maximize waste feed loading, minimize HLW volume, and mitigate corrosion challenges associated with vitrification of high phosphate and fluoride concentrations. Additionally, single-shell tank (SST) retrievals and waste transfers to double-shell tanks (DSTs) in a direct feed flowsheet would likely also benefit from some level of leaching, washing, and solids concentration in order to reduce DST space and mission duration. These operations could occur in a new facility or potentially in available DSTs. If washing and leaching are utilized, an effective disposition pathway for the wash water and leachate solutions are needed. Three target species that benefit significantly from leaching and washing are phosphate, fluoride and aluminum. Phosphate (PO 4 3- ) and fluoride (F - ) can contribute substantially to the amount of carrier fluid needed for dissolution, and the resulting volume of liquid generated. Disposition of this retrieval solution should be evaluated in order to prevent crystallization of these anions throughout system processing. Since there is a high probability that any retrieval solutions will be at or near their PO 4 3- and F - solubility limits, evaporation or blending with a high Na supernate (>3.5 M) is not recommended for the wash water streams without a method to remove precipitants prior to solution disposal. Additionally, aluminum present in the southeast quadrant of the Hanford site represents roughly 60% of the waste solids in the initial processing tanks. These aluminum solids are in the form of gibbsite (Al(OH) 3 ) and can pose significant challenges for processing due to the fast-settling times and high solids loading associated with these materials. Easily remediated by caustic addition to the solids, these wash solutions could be processed through crystalline silicotitanate (CST) ion exchange columns to prepare the supernate solutions for disposition. The current target for feed conditions to the Low Activity Waste (LAW) melter are waste streams that contain nominally 5-6 M Na. Fractions within the tanks contain upwards of 0.2 M phosphate and fluoride in solution at 3.5 M Na. Concentrating these solutions above 5 M Na would result in an exceedance of the solubility limits, and potential for uncontrolled precipitation of the phosphate and fluoride crystal material. The resulting crystalline salt material is typically sodium fluoride phosphate, also referred to as natrophosphate (Na 7 FPO 4 ·19H 2 O). Salt phases are of importance in tank waste due to their chemical reactivity, which can result in precipitation, dissolution, or transformation, impacting any downstream processes (Bolling et al. 2020, Russell, Snow, and Peterson 2010). Salt generation and precipitation could pose challenges by causing system plugging and melter corrosion if left in the supernate stream, or limit sodium molarity of the supernate that would be accepted without incident in waste operations. To understand the impact of this salt generation, the crystallization of natrophosphate in multiple simulant feed matrices was studied to understand the implications of various tank waste supernate chemistries. Three matrices were examined: high PO 4 3- /low F - , low PO 4 3- /high F - , and an average matrix. Subsequent testing was performed with the average matrix with the inclusion of CsNO 3 , and a final run with the average matrix including CsNO 3 and a 137 Cs spike for tracer purposes.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
NASA NTRS1983

A quarantine protocol for analysis of returned extraterrestrial samples

A protocol is presented for the analysis at an earth-orbiting quarantine facility of return samples of extraterrestrial material that might contain (nonterrestrial) life forms. The protocol consists of a series of tests designed to determine whether the sample, conceptualized as a 1-kg sample of Martian soil, is free from nonterrestrial biologically active agents and so may safely be sent to a terrestrial containment facility, or it exhibits biological activity requiring further (second-order) testing outside the biosphere. The first-order testing procedure seeks to detect the presence of any replicating organisms or toxic substances through a series of experiments including gas sampling, analysis of radioactivity, stereomicroscopic inspection, chemical analysis, microscopic examination, the search for metabolic products under growth conditions, microbiologicl assays, and the challenge of cultured cells with any agents found or with the extraterrestrial material as is. Detailed plans for the second-order testing would be developed in response to the actual data received from primary testing.

Bagby, J. R.↗
DOE OSTI2025

Evaluation of Technologies to Mitigate the Presence of Gaseous Elemental Mercury in Waste Disposal Containers

A study was conducted to evaluate sorbent technologies that can mitigate the presence of elemental mercury (Hg⁰) in waste containers for mercury-contaminated debris (MCD). Decontamination and demolition (D&D) activities at the Y-12 National Security Complex (Y-12) and other U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Oak Ridge Reservation (ORR) facilities generate MCD requiring offsite disposal. The debris is packaged in appropriate waste containers and may be temporarily stored onsite prior to transport for treatment and/or disposal. During transportation of loads that had no visible liquid Hg at the point of origin, temperature changes can cause Hg⁰ to evaporate, condense, and form droplets on container walls. Furthermore, vibration during transportation could cause beads of Hg to be released from the debris, container walls, and ceiling, resulting in pools of liquid Hg⁰ on the container floor. Waste acceptance criteria (WAC) limitations for commercial disposal facilities, the Nevada National Security Site (NNSS), and ORR mixed low-level waste landfills prohibit the presence of any free liquids in containers identified as a solid waste form. Potential solutions to mitigate the presence of residual liquids that could be formed through vapor condensation include the use of sorbents or similar materials to capture and stabilize volatile Hg⁰ vapors and thus ensure compliance with landfill WAC requirements. This report summarizes data from small-scale laboratory experiments conducted to evaluate sorbent materials for Hg⁰ vapor suppression and sorption of liquid Hg⁰ that could form under relevant transportation and disposal conditions. A series of experiments was conducted to evaluate commercial sorbent materials and their effectiveness for Hg⁰ sorption across a temperature range from 19.4°C to 60°C. The impact of residual moisture on sorption was investigated under relevant conditions, and leaching tests were performed to assess the stability of Hg⁰ captured sorbent materials. The results provide estimates for sorbent quantities needed for a given Hg⁰ mass loading based on experimental results exposing sorbents to gaseous and liquid Hg⁰ at various mass ratios. Overall, sorbents that were most effective for Hg⁰ vapor suppression were brominated activated carbons, mackinawite-based sorbents coated on vermiculite, and sulfur-modified granular activated carbon. Elevated temperatures and moisture conditions did not result in significant increases of Hg⁰ headspace concentrations, and the materials also demonstrated high sorption capacities for the sorption of liquid Hg⁰.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2026

Cementless Concrete: Advancing Alkali-Activated Slag Composites with Black Liquor

This project explores the use of black liquor, a byproduct of sustainable aviation fuel production, as an alkaline activator for industrial byproducts such as steel slags to produce alkali-activated composites (AACs). The resulting cementless concrete cures at ambient temperature, demonstrates comparable performance to conventional cement, and offers a safer, lower-energy alternative for durable construction materials.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Elucidation of Ce/Zr ratio effects on the physical properties and catalytic performance of CuO x /Ce y Zr 1− y O 2 catalysts

Although cerium oxide (CeO 2 ) is widely used as a catalyst support, its limited defect sites and surface oxygen vacancy/mobility should be improved. The incorporation of zirconium (Zr) in the cerium (Ce) lattice is shown to increase the number of oxygen vacancies and improve catalytic activity. Using a fixed surface density (SD) of copper (∼2.3 Cu atoms per nm 2 ) as a surface species, the role of the support (Ce y Zr 1−y O 2 (y = 1.0, 0.9, 0.6, 0.5, and 0.0)) and defect site effects in the CO oxidation reaction was investigated. Spectroscopic (e.g., Raman, XRD, XPS) and microscopic (e.g., SEM-EDX, HR-TEM) characterization techniques were applied to evaluate the defect sites, crystallite size, lattice parameters, chemical composition, oxidation states of elements and microstructure of the catalysts. Here, the CO oxidation reaction with varied CO : O 2 ratios (1 : 5, 1 : 1, and 1 : 0.5 (stoichiometric)) was used as a model reaction to describe the relationship between the structure and the catalytic performance of each catalyst. Based on the characterization results of Ce y Zr 1−y O 2 materials, the addition of Zr causes physical and chemical changes to the overall material. The inclusion of Zr into the structure of CeO 2 decreased the overall lattice parameter of the catalyst and increased the number of defect sites. The prepared catalysts were able to reach complete CO conversion (∼100%) at low temperature conditions (<200 °C), each showing varied reaction activity. The difference in CO oxidation activity was then analyzed and related to the structure, wherein Cu loading, surface oxygen vacancies, reduction–oxidation ability, CuO x –support interaction and oxygen mobility in the catalyst were the crucial descriptors.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Dynamics of precatalyst conversion and iron incorporation in nickel-based alkaline oxygen evolution reaction catalysts

The efficiency of alkaline water electrolyzers is limited by the oxygen evolution reaction (OER). The design of improved OER catalysts requires understanding of material changes induced by the electrolyte under oxidizing potentials. We compare four Ni-based thin-film precatalysts—Ni, NiO, Ni(OH) 2 , and NiS x —in 0.1 M KOH with and without Fe impurities. Precatalyst conversion to the active oxyhydroxide catalysts and their OER performance are induced and followed using cyclic voltammetry. Without Fe electrolyte impurities, the precatalysts convert at different rates to a similar, modestly active NiOOH catalyst. Added Fe impurities are incorporated concurrently with the oxyhydroxide formation leading to active Ni 1-x Fe x OOH catalysts. The NiS x and Ni(OH) 2 precatalysts rapidly convert to oxyhydroxides both with and without Fe, while conversion of Ni and especially NiO is slowed down by Fe impurities. Choice of the precatalyst and presence of Fe impurities are key factors in designing active Ni 1-x Fe x OOH OER catalysts for electrolyzers.

alkaline electrolysis↗
DOE OSTI2026

Peptide‐Induced Ferroelectricity in Charge‐Transfer Supramolecular Materials

Organic ferroelectrics are of great interest in sustainable energy conversion, information storage, flexible electronics, and potential biomedical applications as soft implants, among many other applications. Despite their broad potential, the development of organic ferroelectrics has remained limited, with only a few known examples in solid-state systems, primarily due to the lack of well-established design strategies compared to inorganic systems. Bio-inspired supramolecular chemistry offers a path to create functional nanostructures that are water-processable and biocompatible. We report here on supramolecular charge transfer (CT) systems in which peptides are covalently linked to dyads of electron-donating and electron-accepting moieties, creating amphiphiles that self-assemble into nanoscale ribbons in water. The peptide chirality-induced symmetry breaking in these crystalline nanostructures not only results in second harmonic activity but also generates ferroelectric behavior across multiple CT systems, demonstrating a versatile supramolecular approach to the design of new organic ferroelectrics. Furthermore, culturing primary neuron cells on coatings of the ferroelectric materials promoted axonal growth and enhanced action potentials, indicating improved neuronal maturity facilitated by the polar structure of the ferroelectric nanomaterials. The supramolecular strategy used here holds promise to create new water-processable ferroelectric biomaterials, opening avenues for innovative applications in cell charge transfer, neuronal axon growth, peptide symmetry breaking, self-assembling peptides, supramolecular ferroelectrics, proliferation, and bioelectronics.

charge transfer↗
DOE OSTI2025

Production and radiochemistry of the in vivo PET generator 140 Nd/ 140 Pr as an imaging surrogate for F-block therapeutic radionuclides

Theranostics, a combined approach of diagnostics and therapeutics, often employs F-block therapeutic radionuclides including 225 Ac, 177 Lu, and 161 Tb. While there is a lack of F-block PET imaging radionuclides, the in vivo PET generator pair 140 Nd/ 140 Pr can act as a theranostic imaging counterpart to the F-block therapeutic radionuclides. In this study, we explored the production and separation of high purity 140 Nd via the 141 Pr(p,2n) 140 Nd reaction route. Monoisotopic 141 Pr targets irradiated with 20 MeV protons for 10 min with 10 µA beam current yielded 21.45 ± 0.82 MBq (580 ± 22 µCi) of 140 Nd. A two-step separation method was developed for the purification of 140 Nd from the 141 Pr target material. Recoveries of 27.4 ± 2.1% 140Nd were obtained upon separation with < 20 ppb of 141 Pr target material in the final product. Radiolabeling of Macropa and DOTA chelators with 140 Nd resulted in [ 140 Nd]Nd-Macropa with a molar activity of 74.0 MBq/µmol (2.0 mCi/µmol) and [ 140 Nd]Nd-DOTA with a molar activity of 70.3 MBq/µmol (1.9 mCi/µmol). An imaging study with a phantom indicated the PET spatial resolution of 140 Nd/ 140 Pr was distinguishable down to 2.4 mm. This study sets the stage for the 140 Nd/ 140 Pr in vivo PET generator to be explored in radiopharmaceutical applications.

F-block↗
DOE OSTI2025

Synergy between Ni and Fe in NiFe aerogel oxygen evolution reaction catalyst: in situ 57 Fe Mössbauer and X-ray absorption spectroscopy studies

Anion-exchange-membrane water electrolyzers (AEMWE) for hydrogen production have attracted interest because cost-effective Ni- and Fe-based catalysts can be used for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER). Although NiFe oxide/hydroxide-based catalysts have been extensively studied, the role of Fe and its chemical state during OER are not well understood, with inconsistent findings across different studies. In this work, we combined in situ 57 Fe Mössbauer (MS) and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) to investigate the chemical states of Fe and Ni and elucidate their synergy during the OER. A NiFe (8 : 1 molar ratio) aerogel catalyst with high surface area, nano crystallinity, and high performance in AEMWE was used. We show that both Fe and Ni are oxidized during anodic polarization, and the potential for the change of oxidation states correlates well with the onset of the OER. In situ MS shows that 80–90% of Fe 3+ becomes tetravalent at OER potentials and remains so even after the potential is lowered below OER onset. Analysis of in situ XAS results suggests full Fe incorporation into Ni hydroxide. At OER potentials, lattice contraction indicates high oxidation states for both Ni and Fe. Upon returning to lower potentials, a portion of the Fe remains in its more oxidized form which corroborates the in situ MS findings. Results from this work affirm the importance of high-valent Ni and Fe in promoting the OER. Ni and Fe exhibit synergy during OER and the aerogel's unique nanomorphology leads to high OER activity.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Estimating ionization states and continuum lowering from ab initio path integral Monte Carlo simulations for warm dense hydrogen

Warm dense matter (WDM) is an active field of research, with applications ranging from astrophysics to inertial confinement fusion. Ionization degree and continuum lowering are important quantities to understand how materials behave under these conditions, but can be difficult to diagnose since experimental campaigns are limited and often require model-dependent analysis. This is especially true for hydrogen, which has a comparably low scattering cross section, making high-quality data particularly difficult to obtain. Consequently, building equation of state tables often relies on simulations in combination with untested approximations to extract properties from experiments. Here, we investigate an approach for extracting the ionization potential depression and ionization degree—quantities which are otherwise not directly accessible from the physical model—from first-principles path integral Monte Carlo (PIMC) simulations utilizing a chemical model. In contrast to experimental measurements, where noise and nonequilibrium effects add to the uncertainty of the inferred parameters, PIMC simulations provide a clean signal with well-defined thermodynamic conditions. Comparisons against commonly used models show a qualitative agreement, but we find deviations primarily for the high-density and high-temperature cases. We also demonstrate the decreasing sensitivity of the dynamic structure factor with respect to both ionization and continuum lowering for increasing scattering angles in x-ray Thomson scattering experiments. Our work has important implications for the design of future experiments, but also offers qualitative understanding of structure factors and the imaginary-time correlation function obtained from first-principles quantum Monte Carlo simulations.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Convergence QL: NSF/DOE Quantum Science Summer School: QS3 Final Report

Convergence QL: NSF/DOE Quantum Science Summer School (QS3) was a 2-week summer program held in 2017, 2018, 2019, and 2022. The program was aimed at graduate students and postdoctoral researchers working on a wide range of topics related to quantum science and quantum engineering. Expert leaders in this field served as lectures for the school. The school program included lectures, active learning, project activities, poster presentations, and industry panel discussions. The school covered four topics: Fundamentals and Applications of Quantum Computing (2017), Fundamentals and Applications of Quantum Materials (2018), Fundamentals and Applications of Quantum Devices (2019), and Modern Synthesis of Quantum Materials (2022). In terms of intellectual merit, the school brought together students from different areas of research related to quantum science to educate them on a broad range of related topics, providing a unique crucible for the development of educational content and learning opportunities in a cross-disciplinary fashion in the context of quantum science and quantum engineering. In terms of broader impacts, this may serve to create a workforce which would accelerate research in quantum science, quantum engineering, and the development of new quantum technologies beneficial to society. Additionally, this may add to the training of a cadre of scientists and engineers to serve as future leaders in this research field.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2026

Multi‐Scale Model‐Informed Deep Learning for Plasma‐Nanoparticle Interaction

The Overarching Goal of this proposed research is to understand and quantitively determine the interactions between non-thermal plasma (hot electrons, reactive radicals, vibrationally excited species) and surface reactions on influencing the activity and selectivity of the desired reactions via developing multi-scale model informed deep learning algorithm. Investigating non-thermal plasma-surface interaction is feasible due to the low bulk temperature in the discharge region. To investigate the role of plasma-nanoparticle interaction on enhancing the reaction kinetics, we will focus on ammonia cracking to generate clean hydrogen over earth-abundant, non-critical metallic nanoparticles, which is of great significance for decarbonization. We hypothesize that (1) reactive radicals interacting with surface reaction species via Eley–Rideal mechanism will significantly lower the energetics of the potential rate-limiting step of nitrogen formation; (2) the surface will be charged heterogeneously under non-thermal plasma conditions and the charged site will lower the energetics of ammonia cracking through Langmuir– Hinshelwood mechanism; (3) vibrationally excited ammonia will further promote the initial N-H bond cleavage. To access the hypothesis, we will (1) reveal the surface charge effects on tunning the reaction energetics via interpretable, physics-informed deep learning accelerated density functional theory (DFT) calculations; (2) determine the reactive radicals interacting with surface reaction species on tuning the reaction energetics via DFT; (3) reveal the surface charge effects on tunning the reaction energetics via DFT and deep learning models, (4) quantify how vibrationally excited species, reactive radicals, and surface charging effects on enhancing the catalysis via developing DFT-based microkinetic modeling (MKM) and active learning. Deep and active learning of plasma-nanoparticle interactions effects on enhancing ammonia cracking to generate hydrogen represents a new paradigm for designing high performance plasma materials. The fundamental science of how plasma-nanoparticle interactions will change the plasma kinetics and will improve the energy efficiency for decarbonization and sustainability. The interpretable and physics-informed machine learning model will accelerate low temperature plasma chemistry and material discovery with physics rules and model interpretation.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗