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At least 1,081 records · Page 60
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2024

Reactivity of net-zero carbon alcohol fuels and their corresponding aldehyde intermediates on PGM-based commercial oxidation catalysts for lean-burn emissions control

Alcohol net-zero carbon fuels will play a significant role in decarbonization of the hard-to-electrify transportation sectors. However, the combustion process in alcohol-fueled engines generate toxic aldehydes. For commercialization of net-zero carbon fuels on engines, compliance with the stringent U.S. EPA regulations is necessary. Here, this contribution focuses on reactivity of alcohols and aldehydes on commercial diesel oxidation catalysts (DOC) to inform selection of future net-zero carbon fuels. Alcohol (and aldehyde) light-off temperatures were measured on aged DOCs under full synthetic engine-exhaust conditions. Methanol was the most reactive, while ethanol completely oxidized at higher temperatures. Alcohols typically formed less reactive aldehyde intermediates. DRIFTS revealed strongly adsorbing surface formates and acetates during methanol and ethanol oxidation, respectively, resulting in inhibition effects. Preliminary alcohol oxidation mechanisms combining flow reactor and DRIFTS observations are presented. Aldehydes inhibited CO oxidation. Minimal N 2 O formation was observed for the alcohols investigated.

Alcohol oxidation↗
DOE OSTI2025

Redistribution of Ru in Fe 2 O 3 –Ru Nanocatalysts through an Oxidative Pretreatment Improves Reverse Water–Gas Shift Activity

We have synthesized Fe–Ru nanoparticles via a solvothermal method to create catalysts for the reverse water–gas shift reaction and demonstrated the impact of reductive and oxidative pretreatments on both catalytic performance and structure. Catalytic testing showed improved activity after exposure to O 2 at 600 °C. In contrast, the activity became lower if then exposed to H 2 at 600 °C. Environmental scanning transmission electron microscopy and scanning electron microscopy showed that exposure to O 2 at 600 °C changes the morphology and completely oxidizes Fe into Fe 2 O 3 . Exposure to H 2 at elevated temperature caused Ru coalescence at the surface of the nanoparticle, forming clusters which decreased the optimization of Ru. Reoxidation of the particles exposed to H 2 , however, caused a redistribution of Ru that appears beneficial in maximizing Ru exposure and synergy with Fe oxide, with no major changes in the morphology and oxide structure. Furthermore, our diagnostics demonstrate the complex and reversible rearrangements possible in these multicomponent particles and the benefits of oxidative pretreatment to enhance or regenerate Fe–Ru catalysts in other important catalytic reactions such as Fischer–Tropsch synthesis.

Fe−Ru nanoparticles↗
DOE OSTI2023

Highly Active and Stable Single Atom Rh 1 /CeO 2 Catalyst for CO Oxidation during Redox Cycling

We report a single atom Rh 1 /CeO 2 catalyst prepared by the high temperature (800 °C) atom trapping (AT) method which is stable under both oxidative and reductive conditions. Infrared spectroscopic and electron microscopy characterization revealed the presence of exclusively ionic Rh species. These ionic Rh species are stable even under reducing conditions (CO at 300 °C) due to the strong interaction between Rh and CeO 2 achieved by the AT method, leading to high and reproducible CO oxidation activity regardless of whether the catalyst is reduced or oxidized. In contrast, ionic Rh species in catalysts synthesized by a conventional impregnation approach (e. g., calcined at 350 °C) can be readily reduced to form Rh nanoclusters/nanoparticles, which are easily oxidized under oxidative conditions, leading to loss of catalytic performance. The single atom Rh 1 /CeO 2 catalysts synthesized by the AT method do not exhibit changes during redox cycling hence are promising catalysts for emission control where redox cycling is encountered, and severe oxidation (fuel cut) leads to loss of performance.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Effect of Surface Temperature on the Distribution and Reactivity of Rh Active Sites for CO Oxidation

Single–atom catalysts are a fast–emerging area in which late–transition metal atoms are supported on oxides, metals, and carbonaceous supports. They show great promise for selective chemical reactions due to their well–defined active sites, and significantly reduce precious metal loading. However, oxide–supported single–atom catalysts have drawbacks such as deactivation due to sintering, and there are on–going debates about the exact nature of the active sites. Herein we report a model system where the surface temperature during Rh deposition on a copper oxide support dictates the Rh size distribution. Here our temperature–programmed desorption experiments reveal that Rh clusters perform CO oxidation at lower temperature than single atoms, and isotopic labelling demonstrates differences in the mechanism in that the C–O bond is broken and reformed on clusters, as opposed to a pure Mars van Krevelen mechanism for CO oxidation at the single–atom Rh sites. We further examine the cluster size distributions with scanning tunneling microscopy and X–ray photoelectron spectroscopy which confirm the presence of both clusters and single atoms for the lower temperature deposition and only single atoms for the higher temperature deposition. Together, these results provide a fundamental understanding of the differences in the CO oxidation mechanism on Rh atoms and clusters.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Probing the Behavior of Composition‐Tunable Ultrathin PtNi Nanowires for CO Oxidation and Small‐Molecule Electrocatalytic Reactions

We have successfully synthesized ultrathin nanowires of pure Pt, Pt 99 Ni 1 , Pt 9 Ni 1 , and Pt 7 Ni 3 using a modified room-temperature soft-template method. Analysis of both methanol oxidation reaction (MOR) and ethanol oxidation reaction (EOR) results found that the Pt 7 Ni 3 samples yielded the best performance with specific activities of 0.36 and 0.34 mA/cm 2 respectively. Additionally, formic acid oxidation reaction (FAOR) tests noted that both Pt and PtNi nanowires oxidize small organic molecules (SOMs) via an indirect pathway. CO oxidation data suggests little measurable performance without any pre-reduction treatment; however, after annealing in H 2 , we detected significantly improved CO 2 formation for both Pt 9 Ni 1 and Pt 7 Ni 3 motifs. These observations highlight the importance of pre-treating these nanowires under a reducing atmosphere to enhance their performance for CO oxidation. To explain these findings, we collected extended x-ray adsorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectroscopy data, consistent with the presence of partial alloying with a tendency for Pt and Ni to segregate, thereby implying the formation of a Pt-rich shell coupled with a Ni-rich core. Here, we also observed that the degree of alloying within the nanowires increased after annealing in a reducing atmosphere, a finding deduced through analysis of the coordination numbers and calculations of Cowley's short range order parameters.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Electrochemical Oxidation of HMF via Hydrogen Atom Transfer and Hydride Transfer on NiOOH and the Impact of NiOOH Composition

Abstract A great deal of attention has been directed toward studying the electrochemical oxidation of 5‐hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), a molecule that can be obtained from biomass‐derived cellulose and hemicellulose, to 2,5‐furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA), a molecule that can replace the petroleum‐derived terephthalic acid in the production of widely used polymers such as polyethylene terephthalate. NiOOH is one of the best and most well studied electrocatalysts for achieving this transformation; however, the mechanism by which it does so is still poorly understood. This study quantitatively examines how two different dehydrogenation mechanisms on NiOOH impact the oxidation of HMF and its oxidation intermediates on the way to FDCA. The first mechanism is a well‐established indirect oxidation mechanism featuring chemical hydrogen atom transfer to Ni 3+ sites while the second mechanism is a newly discovered potential‐dependent (PD) oxidation mechanism involving electrochemically induced hydride transfer to Ni 4+ sites. The composition of NiOOH was also tuned to shift the potential of the Ni(OH) 2 /NiOOH redox couple and to investigate how this affects the rates of indirect and PD oxidation as well as intermediate accumulation during a constant potential electrolysis. The new insights gained by this study will allow for the rational design of more efficient electrochemical dehydrogenation catalysts.

2,5-furandicarboxylic acid↗
DOE OSTI2021

Quantifying adherence of oxide scales on steels exposed to high temperature and pressure steam

Oxide scale exfoliation is a major concern in fossil fuel power generation because it can cause tube blockages and erode valves and steam turbine components downstream. There is still considerable scientific and commercial interest to improve the mechanistic understanding of oxide failures by developing models to predict exfoliation and the extent of tube blockage as a function of operating conditions and component geometries. Tensile testing inside a scanning electron microscope was conducted on ferritic–martensitic and austenitic steel specimens with the steam side (Fe,Cr)-rich oxides grown after exposures for up to 1000 h in steam with ~100 ppb O 2 at 276 bar and 550°C. Multiple oxide layer cracks and delamination events were observed and analyzed in detail during the tests. Results from the testing agreed well with earlier observations that had identified the failure location at the outer–inner oxide layer for all tested materials. Calculated adhesion energies identified the outer–inner oxide interface of alloy 347HFG as the weakest interface.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

High-Temperature Oxidation of Steels in Direct-Fired CO 2 Power Cycle Environments

We report future direct-fired supercritical CO 2 power cycles require steels resistant to oxidation/corrosion in high-temperature CO 2 environments containing various impurities. Herein we studied the oxidation behavior of 14 candidate steels in a simulated direct-fired CO 2 power cycle environment consisting of 95% CO 2 , 4% H 2 O, 1% O 2 with/without 0.1% SO 2 at 1 atm and 550 °C, 600 °C, 650 °C for up to 2500 hours. Steels with ≥11.5 wt% Cr exhibited at least partial coverage by Cr-rich oxide scales leading to a significant decrease in the oxidation rates in both gases. While SO 2 had little effect on low-Cr steels that formed Fe-rich oxides, it generally worsened performance of high-Cr (> 11.5 wt%) steels by hindering the establishment of a protective Cr-rich oxide. This effect was most pronounced at the lowest temperature of 550 °C, which was attributed to strong preferential adsorption of sulfur-containing species within the oxide at relatively low temperatures.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Irradiation damage reduces alloy corrosion rate via oxide space charge compensation effects

Radiation effects in materials often compound and accelerate other detrimental phenomena such as embrittlement, oxidation and creep. However, irradiation can also decrease the oxidation rate, for instance with ZrNb alloys nuclear fuel cladding. In this study, we rationalize this observation on Zr-0.5Nb alloy by introducing a mechanism based on oxide space charge modification, resulting from irradiation enhanced Nb clustering. Here, this mechanism is investigated using a multiscale approach: from the macroscale, to determine post-irradiation oxidation kinetics, to the atomic scale, using in-situ atom probe tomography sample oxidation, to observe elemental solute redistribution across the oxide/metal interface. The mechanism is further supported by high resolution transmission electron microscopy characterization and density functional theory calculations. A point defect model is proposed to account for oxide space charge effects and their changes under irradiation. This integrated, multiscale experimental and modeling approach challenges the current paradigm on irradiation effects and how they can potentially improve materials performance in extreme environments.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Influence of strain on SrFeO 3-δ oxidation, reduction, and water dissociation: Insights from ambient pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

The oxidation and reduction of metal oxides and their interaction with the environment play a critical role in their use for energy storage and conversion applications. The formation of surface adsorbates and their impact on oxide electronic structure can be challenging to probe experimentally, particularly for thin films which enable the study of epitaxial strain but have low surface areas. Here we present a detailed study using ambient pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy of the reduction and oxidation of strained SrFeO 3-δ , induced by changes in temperature, oxygen partial pressure, and water vapor exposure. We find that in comparison to the oxidized lattice, application of tensile strain promotes the formation of oxygen vacancies at the surface, facilitating the subsequent incorporation of oxygen into the lattice in an oxygen environment. While tensile strain does promote the formation of hydroxyls from water dissociation, the kinetics of this process appear more sluggish than on less-strained surfaces, likely due to a competitive surface interaction with oxygen or bulk absorption of hydroxyl species. These findings relating strain, oxygen vacancies, and surface reactivity yield important insight into the surface functionality of oxides for energy conversion and storage applications.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

A wide range experimental study and further development of a kinetic model describing propane oxidation

This work presents an experimental and kinetic modeling study of propane oxidation. Ignition delay times of propane were measured in a high-pressure shock tube and in rapid compression machines in the temperature range 689 - 1700 K at equivalence ratios of 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 in 'air', for a wide range of pressures from 20 to 90 bar. CO and H 2 O mole fraction profiles for propane oxidation were measured in a shock tube behind reflected shock waves in the temperature range 1370-1840 K at equivalence ratios of 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 and at a pressure of approximately 1.3 atm. Moreover, propane oxidation was studied using a jet-stirred reactor coupled to a synchrotron vacuum ultraviolet photoionization mass spectrometer at low temperatures in the range 565 - 690 K and at a pressure of 1 atm. Further, this wide range of experimental datasets for propane oxidation was used to reoptimize and update our previous kinetic mechanisms, AramcoMech3.0 and NUIGMech1.1. In the current mechanism, NUIGMech1.3, the thermo-chemical parameters of all species relevant to low-temperature propane oxidation chemistry, including propyl-peroxyl, hydroperoxyl-propyl, hydroperoxyl-propyl-peroxyl, and carbonyl-hydroperoxide radicals, are updated based on newly calculated values at the CCSD(T)-F12/TZ-F12//B2PLYPD3/TZ///B2PLYP-D3/TZ level of theory. The improvements made in the thermochemical values and in the kinetic parameters for the low-temperature propane oxidation reactions in NUIGMech1.3 result in better model agreement with the new IDTs and speciation data, including carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, propene, acetaldehyde and various minor products such as ethylene, acetic acid, acrolein as well as various hydroperoxide and cyclic ether species.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

The influence of cooling rate on condensation of iron, aluminum, and uranium oxide nanoparticles

Fundamental observations of particle size distributions are needed to develop models that predict the fate and transport of radioactive materials in the atmosphere following a nuclear incident. The extent of material transport is influenced by the time scales of particle formation processes (e.g., condensation, coagulation). In this study, we investigated the influence of cooling time scales on size distributions of uranium, aluminum, and iron oxide particles that are synthesized separately under identical run conditions inside the controlled environment of an argon plasma flow reactor. Two distinct temperature distributions are imposed along the flow reactor by varying the argon flow rate downstream of the plasma torch. The vaporized reactants of uranium, aluminum, and iron are cooled from about 5000K to 1000K before they are collected on silicon wafers for ex situ scanning electron microscope analysis. The microscope images show that the sizes of the largest aluminum and iron oxide particles heavily depend on the cooling time scales, whereas significant size variation with cooling rate is not observed for uranium oxide particles. In addition, the size distribution of aluminum oxide particles exhibits the broadest range among all three metal oxides studied. We performed simulations of particle size distributions using a kinetic model that couples gas phase oxidation chemistry with particle formation processes, including nucleation, condensation, and coagulation. The model results demonstrate the strong sensitivity of particle size distribution to different cooling histories (i.e., temperature vs residence time) along the flow reactor. In conclusion, the kinetic model also helps identify directions for future research to improve the predictions.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Surface intermediates identified using IR spectroscopy during the catalytic oxidation of C 2 H 6 on IrO 2 (1 1 0) at near-ambient pressures

Characterizing surface intermediates during catalysis is essential for developing mechanistic models of catalytic reactions and for identifying rate-controlling steps. Here, in this work, we used polarization-dependent reflection absorption infrared spectroscopy (PD-RAIRS) to investigate surface intermediates that form on IrO 2 (1 1 0) during the catalytic oxidation of C 2 H 6 at pressures near 0.5 Torr. Our results show that adsorbed CO and HCO 2 are the only intermediates detectable with PD-RAIRS across a wide range of temperatures and reactant compositions during complete C 2 H 6 oxidation, giving rise to dominant peaks at about 2093 and 1310 cm −1 , respectively. These assignments were corroborated by RAIRS measurements following CO and HCOOH adsorption in ultrahigh vacuum, RAIRS with C 2 H 6 – 18 O 2 mixtures during catalysis and vibrational frequencies and IR intensities computed using density functional theory. We find that increasing the C 2 H 6 mole fraction in the reaction mixture raises the CO surface coverage relative to HCO 2 , correlating with increasing catalytic oxidation rates. The formation of CO and HCO 2 surface species at temperatures well below catalytic ignition indicates that the overall rate of C 2 H 6 oxidation on IrO 2 (1 1 0) is governed by steps late in the reaction sequence, such as H 2 O formation, CO oxidation and HCO 2 dehydrogenation. These findings provide key insight into the mechanism of alkane oxidation on IrO 2 (1 1 0) and valuable input for first-principles microkinetic modeling.

Pope, Connor [Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, FL (U↗
DOE OSTI2022

Sonochemical oxidation and stabilization of liquid elemental mercury in water and soil

Over 3000 mercury (Hg)-contaminated sites worldwide contain liquid metallic Hg [Hg(0) 1 ] representing a continuous source of elemental Hg(0) in the environment through volatilization and solubilization in water. Currently, there are few effective treatment technologies available to remove or sequester Hg(0) 1 in situ. We investigated sonochemical treatments coupled with complexing agents, polysulfide and sulfide, in oxidizing Hg(0) 1 and stabilizing Hg in water, soil and quartz sand. Results indicate that sonication is highly effective in breaking up and oxidizing liquid Hg(0) 1 beads via acoustic cavitation, particularly in the presence of polysulfide. Without complexing agents, sonication caused only minor oxidation of Hg(0) 1 but increased headspace gaseous Hg(0) g and dissolved Hg(0) aq in water. However, the presence of polysulfide essentially stopped Hg(0) volatilization and solubilization. As a charged polymer, polysulfide was more effective than sulfide in oxidizing Hg(0) 1 and subsequently stabilizing the precipitated metacinnabar (β-HgS) nanocrystals. Sonochemical treatments with sulfide yielded incomplete oxidation of Hg(0) 1 , likely resulting from the formation of HgS coatings on the dispersed µm-size Hg(0) 1 bead surfaces. Sonication with polysulfide also resulted in rapid oxidation of Hg(0) 1 and precipitation of HgS in quartz sand and in the Hg(0) 1 -contaminated soil. This research indicates that sonochemical treatment with polysulfide could be an effective means in rapidly converting Hg(0) 1 to insoluble HgS precipitates in water and sediments, thereby preventing its further emission and release to the environment. We suggest that future studies are performed to confirm its technical feasibility and treatment efficacy for remediation applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Oxidative coupling of methane (OCM) conversion into C 2 products through a CO 2 /O 2 co-transport membrane reactor

Oxidative coupling of methane (OCM), which transforms CH 4 into C 2 products (C 2 H 6 and C 2 H 4 ) with molecular O 2 as the oxidant, is one of the most studied direct methane conversions (DMCs). However, a major technical hurdle to the OCM process is to achieve high CH 4 conversion at high C 2 (C 2 H 6 and C 2 H 4 ) selectivity. One rudimentary cause for this “tradeoff” behavior is the high chemical reactivity of the products (C 2 H 6 or C 2 H 4 ), which can be re-oxidized by O 2 . To overcome this thermodynamic challenge, minimizing the oxidizing power of the oxidant and lowering the local oxygen partial pressure are keys. Here, In this work, we demonstrate a new membrane reactor that capture CO 2 /O 2 from a flue gas and uses it for OCM conversion. The results show that the co-captured CO 2 /O 2 mixture converts CH 4 into C 2 H 6 in the presence of a 2%Mn–5%Na 2 WO 4 /SiO 2 catalyst, followed by thermal cracking of C 2 H 6 into C 2 H 4 and H 2 . The presence of CO 2 decreases the local partial pressure of O 2 , thus reducing the propensity of C 2 -products re-oxidation and leading to a higher C 2 selectivity. We show that a small button-type membrane reactor can achieve 12% C 2 yield with ~57% C 2 -selectivity using a diluted CH 4 -Ar mixture as the feedstock. We expect higher C 2 yield with tubular plug-flow membrane reactors in the future. We also highlight the unique advantage of the membrane reactor in intensifying CO 2 capture from both flue gas and OCM purification process into one single step.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2023

Design Strategies of Spinel Oxide Frameworks Enabling Reversible Mg-Ion Intercalation

In this study, reversible Mg 2+ intercalation in metal oxides frameworks is a key enabler for an operational Mg ion battery with high energy density needed for the next generation of energy storage technologies. While functional Mg-ion batteries have been achieved in structures with soft anions (e.g., S 2- and Se 2- ), they do not meet energy density requirements to compete with the current rechargeable lithium-ion batteries due to their low insertion potentials, emphasizing the necessity of finding an oxide-based cathode that operates at high potentials. A leading hypothesis to explain the limited availability of oxide Mg-ion cathodes is the belief that Mg 2+ has sluggish diffusion kinetics in oxides due to strong electrostatic interactions between the Mg 2+ ions and oxide anions in the lattice. From this assessment, it can be hypothesized that such rate limiting kinetic shortcomings can be mitigated by tailoring an oxide framework through creating less stable Mg 2+ - O 2- coordination.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Understanding the Control of Speciation of Molybdenum Oxides in MFI-Type Zeolites

Metal oxide-impregnated zeolites are employed in a wide variety of catalytic reactions, including methane dehydroaromatization (MDA). The most studied catalysts for MDA are Mo carbides supported on H-ZSM-5, formed through the carburization of Mo-oxide-loaded H-ZSM-5. A complete structural understanding of these materials has not yet been achieved, limiting the potential for rational catalyst design for improved performance. We hereby pursue experimental and theoretical investigations of these catalyst precursors to uncover rational design principles. We employ temperature-programmed oxidation and extended X-ray absorption fine-structure experiments, density functional theory calculations, and QuantEXAFS analysis to unveil Mo-oxide speciation in H-ZSM-5. Finally, we demonstrate that Mo-oxides exist within these systems as a combination of various motifs, and the relative abundance of these species is controlled through tailored preparation methods. The synergies exploited in this work may be leveraged in other related catalysts. The conclusions drawn are applicable to other relevant applications of zeolite-supported metal oxides.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Electrochemical Oxidation in Garnet-Type Solid Electrolyte by Formation of Point Defects

All-solid-state batteries hold greater promise for improving safety and energy density over conventional battery technology employing organic liquid electrolytes. One of the required features of a Li + conducting solid electrolyte is electrochemical stability, attained thermodynamically or kinetically, within the targeted operating voltage and temperature ranges. Therefore, understanding of the oxidative or reductive degradation mechanism is important to allow the design of stable solid electrolyte materials. This work contributes to building an understanding of the oxidative degradation mechanism in lithium solid electrolytes at cell operating conditions. Here, we have focused on resolving the oxidative decomposition mechanism of Al-doped lithium garnet Li 6.28 Al 0.24 La 3 Zr 2 O 12 (LLZO) as a state-of-the-art inorganic ceramic electrolyte. By combining experimental and computational analyses, we show that oxidation of LLZO occurs by simultaneous loss of oxygen and lithium from the structure, resulting in substoichiometric LLZO, at a moderate temperature (80 °C) and a high electrode potential (4.3 V vs Li/Li + ). Based on X-ray absorption and diffraction analyses, we find that the zirconium coordination shells in LLZO contract while the crystal structure experiences positive chemical strain upon electrochemical oxidation. The results from ex situ structural characterization of both the local structure and crystal symmetry are supported by a substoichiometric LLZO with lithium and oxygen vacancies, modeled by density functional theory (DFT) calculations. These chemical and structural changes in LLZO suppress effective lithium-ion conductivity by an order of magnitude. Formation of lithium and oxygen vacancies in LLZO upon electrochemical oxidation is different from prior thermodynamic predictions of phase decomposition of LLZO. The difference here is that the experiments were conducted at near-room temperature, which can hinder the kinetics of phase separation, and thus, the resultant LLZO solid electrolyte is still single-phase but substoichiometric in Li and O. In conclusion, these findings contribute an important degradation mechanism of the electrolyte, relevant for practical operational conditions of solid-state batteries.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗