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At least 1,081 records · Page 60
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DOE OSTI2016

A THREE-DIMENSIONAL MODEL OF ACTIVE REGION 7986: COMPARISON OF SIMULATIONS WITH OBSERVATIONS

In the present study, we use a forward modeling method to construct a 3D thermal structure encompassing active region 7986 of 1996 August. The extreme ultraviolet (EUV) emissions are then computed and compared with observations. The heating mechanism is inspired by a theory on Alfvén wave turbulence dissipation. The magnetic structure is built from a Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO)/MDI magnetogram and an estimated torsion parameter deduced from observations. We found that the solution to the equations in some locations is in a thermal nonequilibrium state. The time variation of the density and temperature profiles leads to time dependent emissions, which appear as thin, loop-like structures with uniform cross-section. Their timescale is consistent with the lifetime of observed coronal loops. The dynamic nature of the solution also leads to plasma flows that resemble observed coronal rain. The computed EUV emissions from the coronal part of the fan loops and the high loops compare favorably with SOHO/EIT observations in a quantitative comparison. However, the computed emission from the lower atmosphere is excessive compared to observations, a symptom common to many models. Some factors for this discrepancy are suggested, including the use of coronal abundances to compute the emissions and the neglect of atmospheric opacity effects.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

HST-COS OBSERVATIONS OF AGNs. III. SPECTRAL CONSTRAINTS IN THE LYMAN CONTINUUM FROM COMPOSITE COS/G140L DATA

The rest-frame ultraviolet (UV) spectra of active galactic nuclei (AGNs) are important diagnostics of both accretion disk physics and their contribution to the metagalactic ionizing UV background. Though the mean AGN spectrum is well characterized with composite spectra at wavelengths greater than 912 Å, the shorter-wavelength extreme-UV (EUV) remains poorly studied. In this third paper in a series on the spectra of AGNs, we combine 11 new spectra taken with the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph on the Hubble Space Telescope with archival spectra to characterize the typical EUV spectral slope of AGNs from λ{sub rest} ∼ 850 Å down to λ{sub rest} ∼ 425 Å. Parameterizing this slope as a power law, we obtain F{sub ν} ∝ ν{sup −0.72±0.26}, but we also discuss the limitations and systematic uncertainties of this model. We identify broad emission features in this spectral region, including emission due to ions of O, Ne, Mg, and other species, and we limit the intrinsic He i 504 Å photoelectric absorption edge opacity to τ{sub He} {sub i} < 0.047.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

RECOVERY FROM GIANT ERUPTIONS IN VERY MASSIVE STARS

We use a hydro-and-radiative-transfer code to explore the behavior of a very massive star (VMS) after a giant eruption—i.e., following a supernova impostor event. Beginning with reasonable models for evolved VMSs with masses of 80 M{sub ⊙} and 120 M{sub ⊙}, we simulate the change of state caused by a giant eruption via two methods that explicitly conserve total energy. (1) Synthetically removing outer layers of mass of a few M{sub ⊙} while reducing the energy of the inner layers. (2) Synthetically transferring energy from the core to the outer layers, an operation that automatically causes mass ejection. Our focus is on the aftermath, not the poorly understood eruption itself. Then, using a radiation-hydrodynamic code in 1D with realistic opacities and convection, the interior disequilibrium state is followed for about 200 years. Typically the star develops a ∼400 km s{sup −1} wind with a mass loss rate that begins around 0.1 M{sub ⊙} yr{sup −1} and gradually decreases. This outflow is driven by κ-mechanism radial pulsations. The 1D models have regular pulsations but 3D models will probably be more chaotic. In some cases a plateau in the mass-loss rate may persist about 200 years, while other cases are more like η Car which lost >10 M{sub ⊙} and then had an abnormal mass loss rate for more than a century after its eruption. In our model, the post-eruption outflow carried more mass than the initial eruption. These simulations constitute a useful preliminary reconnaissance for 3D models which will be far more difficult.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

PLANETARY EMBRYO BOW SHOCKS AS A MECHANISM FOR CHONDRULE FORMATION

We use radiation hydrodynamics with direct particle integration to explore the feasibility of chondrule formation in planetary embryo bow shocks. The calculations presented here are used to explore the consequences of a Mars-size planetary embryo traveling on a moderately excited orbit through the dusty, early environment of the solar system. The embryo’s eccentric orbit produces a range of supersonic relative velocities between the embryo and the circularly orbiting gas and dust, prompting the formation of bow shocks. Temporary atmospheres around these embryos, which can be created via volatile outgassing and gas capture from the surrounding nebula, can non-trivially affect thermal profiles of solids entering the shock. We explore the thermal environment of solids that traverse the bow shock at different impact radii, the effects that planetoid atmospheres have on shock morphologies, and the stripping efficiency of planetoidal atmospheres in the presence of high relative winds. Simulations are run using adiabatic and radiative conditions, with multiple treatments for the local opacities. Shock speeds of 5, 6, and 7 km s{sup −1} are explored. We find that a high-mass atmosphere and inefficient radiative conditions can produce peak temperatures and cooling rates that are consistent with the constraints set by chondrule furnace studies. For most conditions, the derived cooling rates are potentially too high to be consistent with chondrule formation.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

GRAIN SIZE CONSTRAINTS ON HL TAU WITH POLARIZATION SIGNATURE

The millimeter-wave polarization of the protoplanetary disk around HL Tau has been interpreted as the emission from elongated dust grains aligned with the magnetic field in the disk. However, the self-scattering of thermal dust emission may also explain the observed millimeter-wave polarization. In this paper, we report a modeling of the millimeter-wave polarization of the HL Tau disk with the self-polarization. Dust grains are assumed to be spherical and to have a power-law size distribution. We change the maximum grain size with a fixed dust composition in a fixed disk model to find the grain size to reproduce the observed signature. We find that the direction of the polarization vectors and the polarization degree can be explained with the self-scattering. Moreover, the polarization degree can be explained only if the maximum grain size is ∼150 μm. The obtained grain size from the polarization is different from that which has been previously expected from the spectral index of the dust opacity coefficient (a millimeter or larger) if the emission is optically thin. We discuss that porous dust aggregates may solve the inconsistency of the maximum grain size between the two constraints.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

GAMMA–GAMMA ABSORPTION IN THE BROAD LINE REGION RADIATION FIELDS OF GAMMA-RAY BLAZARS

The expected level of γγ absorption in the Broad Line Region (BLR) radiation field of γ -ray loud Flat Spectrum Radio Quasars (FSRQs) is evaluated as a function of the location of the γ -ray emission region. This is done self-consistently with parameters inferred from the shape of the spectral energy distribution (SED) in a single-zone leptonic EC-BLR model scenario. We take into account all geometrical effects both in the calculation of the γγ opacity and the normalization of the BLR radiation energy density. As specific examples, we study the FSRQs 3C279 and PKS 1510-089, keeping the BLR radiation energy density at the location of the emission region fixed at the values inferred from the SED. We confirm previous findings that the optical depth due to γγ absorption in the BLR radiation field exceeds unity for both 3C279 and PKS 1510-089 for locations of the γ -ray emission region inside the inner boundary of the BLR. It decreases monotonically, with distance from the central engine and drops below unity for locations within the BLR. For locations outside the BLR, the BLR radiation energy density required for the production of GeV γ -rays rapidly increases beyond observational constraints, thus making the EC-BLR mechanism implausible. Therefore, in order to avoid significant γγ absorption by the BLR radiation field, the γ -ray emission region must therefore be located near the outer boundary of the BLR.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

Constraining globular cluster age uncertainties using the IR color-magnitude diagram

Globular Clusters (GCs) in the Milky Way are the primary laboratories for establishing the ages of the oldest stellar populations and for measuring the color–magnitude relation of stars. In infrared (IR) color–magnitude diagrams (CMDs), the stellar main sequence (MS) exhibits a “kink” due to opacity effects in M dwarfs such that lower mass and cooler dwarfs become bluer in the IR color baseline. This diagnostic offers a new opportunity to model GC CMDs and to reduce uncertainties on cluster properties (e.g., their derived ages). In this context, we analyzed Hubble Space Telescope Wide Field Camera 3 IR archival observations of four GCs—47 Tuc, M4, NGC 2808, and NGC 6752—for which the data are deep enough to fully sample the low-mass MS, reaching at least ≃2 mag below the “kink.” We derived the fiducial lines for each cluster and compared them with a grid of isochrones over a large range of parameter space, allowing age, metallicity, distance, and reddening to vary within reasonable selected ranges. The derived ages for the four clusters are, respectively, 11.6, 11.5, 11.2, and 12.1 Gyr and their random uncertainties are σ ∼ 0.7–1.1 Gyr. Our results suggest that the near-IR MS “kink,” combined with the MS turn-off, provides a valuable tool to measure GC ages and offers a promising opportunity to push the absolute age of GCs to sub-Gyr accuracy with the next generation IR telescopes such as the James Webb Space Telescope and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Telescope.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

A characteristic transmission spectrum dominated by H{sub 2}O applies to the majority of HST/WFC3 exoplanet observations

Currently, 19 transiting exoplanets have published transmission spectra obtained with the Hubble/WFC3 G141 near-IR grism. Using this sample, we have undertaken a uniform analysis incorporating measurement-error debiasing of the spectral modulation due to H{sub 2}O, measured in terms of the estimated atmospheric scale height, H{sub s}. For those planets with a reported H{sub 2}O detection (10 out of 19), the spectral modulation due to H{sub 2}O ranges from 0.9 to 2.9 H{sub s} with a mean value of 1.8 ± 0.5 H{sub s}. This spectral modulation is significantly less than predicted for clear atmospheres. For the group of planets in which H{sub 2}O has been detected, we find the individual spectra can be coherently averaged to produce a characteristic spectrum in which the shape, together with the spectral modulation of the sample, are consistent with a range of H{sub 2}O mixing ratios and cloud-top pressures, with a minimum H{sub 2}O mixing ratio of 17{sub −6}{sup +12} ppm corresponding to the cloud-free case. Using this lower limit, we show that clouds or aerosols must block at least half of the atmospheric column that would otherwise be sampled by transmission spectroscopy in the case of a cloud-free atmosphere. We conclude that terminator-region clouds with sufficient opacity to be opaque in slant-viewing geometry are common in hot Jupiters.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

ON THE GRAVITATIONAL STABILITY OF GRAVITO-TURBULENT ACCRETION DISKS

Low mass, self-gravitating accretion disks admit quasi-steady, “gravito-turbulent” states in which cooling balances turbulent viscous heating. However, numerical simulations show that gravito-turbulence cannot be sustained beyond dynamical timescales when the cooling rate or corresponding turbulent viscosity is too large. The result is disk fragmentation. We motivate and quantify an interpretation of disk fragmentation as the inability to maintain gravito-turbulence due to formal secondary instabilities driven by: (1) cooling, which reduces pressure support; and/or (2) viscosity, which reduces rotational support. We analyze the axisymmetric gravitational stability of viscous, non-adiabatic accretion disks with internal heating, external irradiation, and cooling in the shearing box approximation. We consider parameterized cooling functions in 2D and 3D disks, as well as radiative diffusion in 3D. We show that generally there is no critical cooling rate/viscosity below which the disk is formally stable, although interesting limits appear for unstable modes with lengthscales on the order of the disk thickness. We apply this new linear theory to protoplanetary disks subject to gravito-turbulence modeled as an effective viscosity, and cooling regulated by dust opacity. We find that viscosity renders the disk beyond ∼60 au dynamically unstable on radial lengthscales a few times the local disk thickness. This is coincident with the empirical condition for disk fragmentation based on a maximum sustainable stress. We suggest turbulent stresses can play an active role in realistic disk fragmentation by removing rotational stabilization against self-gravity, and that the observed transition in behavior from gravito-turbulent to fragmenting may reflect instability of the gravito-turbulent state itself.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

THE CHROMOSPHERIC SOLAR LIMB BRIGHTENING AT RADIO, MILLIMETER, SUB-MILLIMETER, AND INFRARED WAVELENGTHS

Observations of the emission at radio, millimeter, sub-millimeter, and infrared wavelengths in the center of the solar disk validate the autoconsistence of semi-empirical models of the chromosphere. Theoretically, these models must reproduce the emission at the solar limb. In this work, we tested both the VALC and C7 semi-empirical models by computing their emission spectrum in the frequency range from 2 GHz to 10 THz at solar limb altitudes. We calculate the Sun's theoretical radii as well as their limb brightening. Non-local thermodynamic equilibrium was computed for hydrogen, electron density, and H{sup −}. In order to solve the radiative transfer equation, a three-dimensional (3D) geometry was employed to determine the ray paths, and Bremsstrahlung, H{sup −}, and inverse Bremsstrahlung opacity sources were integrated in the optical depth. We compared the computed solar radii with high-resolution observations at the limb obtained by Clark. We found that there are differences between the observed and computed solar radii of 12,000 km at 20 GHz, 5000 km at 100 GHz, and 1000 km at 3 THz for both semi-empirical models. A difference of 8000 km in the solar radii was found when comparing our results against the heights obtained from H α observations of spicules-off at the solar limb. We conclude that the solar radii cannot be reproduced by VALC and C7 semi-empirical models at radio—infrared wavelengths. Therefore, the structures in the high chromosphere provide a better measurement of the solar radii and their limb brightening as shown in previous investigations.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

HOW FAR AWAY ARE THE SOURCES OF ICECUBE NEUTRINOS? CONSTRAINTS FROM THE DIFFUSE TERAELECTRONVOLT GAMMA-RAY BACKGROUND

The nearly isotropic distribution of teraelectronvolt to petaelectronvolt neutrinos recently detected by the IceCube Collaboration suggests that they come from sources at a distance beyond our Galaxy, but how far away they are is largely unknown because of a lack of any associations with known sources. In this paper, we propose that the cumulative TeV gamma-ray emission accompanying the production of neutrinos can be used to constrain the distance of these neutrino sources, since the opacity of TeV gamma rays due to absorption by the extragalactic background light depends on the distance these TeV gamma rays have traveled. As the diffuse extragalactic TeV background measured by Fermi is much weaker than the expected cumulative flux associated with IceCube neutrinos, the majority of IceCube neutrinos, if their sources are transparent to TeV gamma rays, must come from distances larger than the horizon of TeV gamma rays. We find that above 80% of the IceCube neutrinos should come from sources at redshift z > 0.5. Thus, the chance of finding nearby sources correlated with IceCube neutrinos would be small. We also find that, to explain the flux of neutrinos under the TeV gamma-ray emission constraint, the redshift evolution of neutrino source density must be at least as fast as the cosmic star formation rate.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

PROTOPLANETARY DISKS IN THE ORION OMC1 REGION IMAGED WITH ALMA

We present ALMA observations of the Orion Nebula that cover the OMC1 outflow region. Our focus in this paper is on compact emission from protoplanetary disks. We mosaicked a field containing ∼600 near-IR-identified young stars, around which we can search for sub-millimeter emission tracing dusty disks. Approximately 100 sources are known proplyds identified with the Hubble Space Telescope . We detect continuum emission at 1 mm wavelengths toward ∼20% of the proplyd sample, and ∼8% of the larger sample of near-IR objects. The noise in our maps allows 4 σ detection of objects brighter than ∼1.5 mJy, corresponding to protoplanetary disk masses larger than 1.5 M {sub J} (using standard assumptions about dust opacities and gas-to-dust ratios). None of these disks are detected in contemporaneous CO(2-1) or C{sup 18}O(2-1) observations, suggesting that the gas-to-dust ratios may be substantially smaller than the canonical value of 100. Furthermore, since dust grains may already be sequestered in large bodies in Orion Nebula cluster (ONC) disks, the inferred masses of disk solids may be underestimated. Our results suggest that the distribution of disk masses in this region is compatible with the detection rate of massive planets around M dwarfs, which are the dominant stellar constituent in the ONC.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

Reverberation mapping of the broad line region: application to a hydrodynamical line-driven disk wind solution

The latest analysis efforts in reverberation mapping are beginning to allow reconstruction of echo images (or velocity-delay maps) that encode information about the structure and kinematics of the broad line region (BLR) in active galactic nuclei (AGNs). Such maps can constrain sophisticated physical models for the BLR. The physical picture of the BLR is often theorized to be a photoionized wind launched from the AGN accretion disk. Previously we showed that the line-driven disk wind solution found in an earlier simulation by Proga and Kallman is virialized over a large distance from the disk. This finding implies that, according to this model, black hole masses can be reliably estimated through reverberation mapping techniques. However, predictions of echo images expected from line-driven disk winds are not available. Here, after presenting the necessary radiative transfer methodology, we carry out the first calculations of such predictions. We find that the echo images are quite similar to other virialized BLR models such as randomly orbiting clouds and thin Keplerian disks. We conduct a parameter survey exploring how echo images, line profiles, and transfer functions depend on both the inclination angle and the line opacity. We find that the line profiles are almost always single peaked, while transfer functions tend to have tails extending to large time delays. The outflow, despite being primarily equatorially directed, causes an appreciable blueshifted excess on both the echo image and line profile when seen from lower inclinations (i≲45{sup ∘}). This effect may be observable in low ionization lines such as Hβ.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

PANCHROMATIC IMAGING OF A TRANSITIONAL DISK: THE DISK OF GM AUR IN OPTICAL AND FUV SCATTERED LIGHT

We have imaged GM Aurigae with the Hubble Space Telescope , detected its disk in scattered light at 1400 and 1650 Å, and compared these with observations at 3300 Å, 5550 Å, 1.1 μ m, and 1.6 μ m. The scattered light increases at shorter wavelengths. The radial surface brightness profile at 3300 Å shows no evidence of the 24 au radius cavity that has been previously observed in submillimeter observations. Comparison with dust grain opacity models indicates that the surface of the entire disk is populated with submicron grains. We have compiled a spectral energy distribution from 0.1 μ m to 1 mm and used it to constrain a model of the star + disk system that includes the submillimeter cavity using the Monte Carlo radiative transfer code by Barbara Whitney. The best-fit model image indicates that the cavity should be detectable in the F330W bandpass if the cavity has been cleared of both large and small dust grains, but we do not detect it. The lack of an observed cavity can be explained by the presence of submicron grains interior to the submillimeter cavity wall. We suggest one explanation for this that could be due to a planet of mass <9 M {sub J} interior to 24 au. A unique cylindrical structure is detected in the far-UV data from the Advanced Camera for Surveys/Solar Blind Channel. It is aligned along the system semiminor axis, but does not resemble an accretion-driven jet. The structure is limb brightened and extends 190 ± 35 au above the disk midplane. The inner radius of the limb brightening is 40 ± 10 au, just beyond the submillimeter cavity wall.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

THE ORION H ii REGION AND THE ORION BAR IN THE MID-INFRARED

We present mid-infrared photometry of the Orion bar obtained with the Faint Object infraRed Camera for the SOFIA Telescope (FORCAST) on board SOFIA at 6.4, 6.6, 7.7, 19.7, 31.5, and 37.1 μ m. By complementing this observation with archival FORCAST and Herschel /PACS images, we are able to construct a complete infrared spectral energy distribution of the Huygens region in the Orion nebula. Comparing the infrared images with gas tracers, we find that PACS maps trace the molecular cloud, while the FORCAST data trace the photodissociation region (PDR) and the H ii region. Analysis of the energetics of the region reveal that the PDR extends for 0.28 pc along the line of sight and that the bar is inclined at an angle of 4°. The infrared and submillimeter images reveal that the Orion bar represents a swept-up shell with a thickness of 0.1 pc. The mass of the shell implies a shock velocity of ≃3 km s{sup −1} and an age of ≃10{sup 5} years for the H ii region. Our analysis shows that the UV and infrared dust opacities in the H ii region and the PDR are a factor 5 to 10 lower than in the diffuse interstellar medium. In the ionized gas, Ly α photons are a major source of dust heating at distances larger than ≃0.06 pc from θ {sup 1} Ori C. Dust temperatures can be explained if the size of the grains is between 0.1 and 1 μ m. We derive the photoelectric heating efficiency of the atomic gas in the Orion bar. The results are in good qualitative agreement with models and the quantitative differences indicate a decreased polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon abundance in this region.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

SPECTROPOLARIMETRY OF SUPERLUMINOUS SUPERNOVAE: INSIGHT INTO THEIR GEOMETRY

We present the first spectropolarimetric observations of a hydrogen-free superluminous supernova (SLSN) at z = 0.1136, namely SN 2015bn. The transient shows significant polarization at both of the observed epochs: one 24 days before maximum light in the rest-frame, and the other at 27 days after peak luminosity. Analysis of the Q – U plane suggests the presence of a dominant axis and no physical departure from the main axis at either epoch. The polarization spectrum along the dominant axis is characterized by a strong wavelength dependence and an increase in the signal from the first to the second epoch. We use a Monte Carlo code to demonstrate that these properties are consistent with a simple toy model that adopts an axisymmetric ellipsoidal configuration for the ejecta. We find that the wavelength dependence of the polarization is possibly due to a strong wavelength dependence in the line opacity, while the higher level of polarization at the second epoch is a consequence of the increase in the asphericity of the inner layers of the ejecta or the fact that the photosphere recedes into less spherical layers. The geometry of the SLSN is similar to that of stripped-envelope core-collapse SNe connected to GRB, while the overall evolution of the ejecta shape could be consistent with a central engine.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

RAMAN SCATTERING BY MOLECULAR HYDROGEN AND NITROGEN IN EXOPLANETARY ATMOSPHERES

An important source of opacity in exoplanet atmospheres at short visible and near-UV wavelengths is Rayleigh scattering of light on molecules. It is accompanied by a related, albeit weaker process—Raman scattering. We analyze the signatures of Raman scattering imprinted in the reflected light and the geometric albedo of exoplanets, which could provide information about atmospheric properties. Raman scattering affects the geometric albedo spectra of planets in the following ways. First, it causes filling-in of strong absorption lines in the incident radiation, thus producing sharp peaks in the albedo. Second, it shifts the wavelengths of spectral features in the reflected light causing the so-called Raman ghost lines. Raman scattering can also cause a broadband reduction of the albedo due to wavelength shifting of a stellar spectrum with red spectral index. Observing the Raman peaks in the albedo could be used to measure the column density of gas, thus providing constraints on the presence of clouds in the atmosphere. Observing the Raman ghost lines could be used to spectroscopically identify the main scatterer in the atmosphere, even molecules like H{sub 2} or N{sub 2}, which do not have prominent spectral signatures in the optical wavelength range. If detected, ghost lines could also provide information about the temperature of the atmosphere. In this paper, we investigate the effects of Raman scattering in hydrogen- and nitrogen-dominated atmospheres. We analyze the feasibility of detecting the signatures of Raman scattering with the existing and future observational facilities, and of using these signatures as probes of exoplanetary atmospheres.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

POPULATION PROPERTIES OF BROWN DWARF ANALOGS TO EXOPLANETS

We present a kinematic analysis of 152 low surface gravity M7-L8 dwarfs by adding 18 new parallaxes (including 10 for comparative field objects), 38 new radial velocities, and 19 new proper motions. We also add low- or moderate-resolution near-infrared spectra for 43 sources confirming their low surface gravity features. Among the full sample, we find 39 objects to be high-likelihood or new bona fide members of nearby moving groups, 92 objects to be ambiguous members and 21 objects that are non-members. Using this age-calibrated sample, we investigate trends in gravity classification, photometric color, absolute magnitude, color–magnitude, luminosity, and effective temperature. We find that gravity classification and photometric color clearly separate 5–130 Myr sources from >3 Gyr field objects, but they do not correlate one to one with the narrower 5–130 Myr age range. Sources with the same spectral subtype in the same group have systematically redder colors, but they are distributed between 1 and 4 σ from the field sequences and the most extreme outlier switches between intermediate- and low-gravity sources either confirmed in a group or not. The absolute magnitudes of low-gravity sources from the J band through W 3 show a flux redistribution when compared to equivalently typed field brown dwarfs that is correlated with spectral subtype. Low-gravity, late-type L dwarfs are fainter at J than the field sequence but brighter by W 3. Low-gravity M dwarfs are >1 mag brighter than field dwarfs in all bands from J through W 3. Clouds, which are a far more dominant opacity source for L dwarfs, are the likely cause. On color–magnitude diagrams, the latest-type, low-gravity L dwarfs drive the elbow of the L/T transition up to 1 mag redder and 1 mag fainter than field dwarfs at M{sub J} but are consistent with or brighter than the elbow at M{sub W1} and M{sub W2}. We conclude that low-gravity dwarfs carry an extreme version of the cloud conditions of field objects to lower temperatures, which logically extends into the lowest-mass, directly imaged exoplanets. Furthermore, there is an indication on color-magnitude diagrams (CMDs; such as M{sub J} versus (J – W 2)) of increasingly redder sequences separated by gravity classification, although it is not consistent across all CMD combinations. Examining bolometric luminosities for planets and low-gravity objects, we confirm that (in general) young M dwarfs are overluminous while young L dwarfs are normal compared to the field. Using model extracted radii, this translates into normal to slightly warmer M dwarf temperatures compared to the field sequence and lower temperatures for L dwarfs with no obvious correlation with the assigned moving group.

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