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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2024

Uranium measurements in the field using high-resolution cadmium zinc telluride detectors

A new generation of cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) detectors has become available and is being evaluated by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) for safeguards verifications in the field. The new CZT detector, model M400, is a room temperature spectrometer manufactured by H3D, Inc. The M400 demonstrates superior energy resolution, effective isotope identification capabilities, and convenient usability features when tested in a controlled laboratory environment. These characteristics define the M400 as a potential platform for IAEA field detection applications, which could become suitable for nuclear material characterization (e.g., enrichment verification) and nuclear safeguards missions. The capabilities of gamma spectrometry codes including Fixed energy, Response function Analysis with Multiple efficiencies (FRAM) from Los Alamos National Laboratory, CZT for Uranium (CZTU) from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and Gamma Detector Response and Analysis Software (GADRAS) from Sandia National Laboratories were adapted for M400 spectra, and the performance of the codes has been validated. This was reported in a prior work. To further validate the performance of the high-energy resolution CZT detector and the isotopic analysis codes, a field measurement campaign consisting of uranium hexafluoride (UF 6 ) cylinder measurements was conducted at a fuel fabrication facility. A total of 34 Type 30B cylinders containing UF6 were measured using three different M400 CZT detectors. Each detector was outfitted with a custom rectangular collimator and shield made out T-Flex®, a tungsten-impregnated polymer. Measurements were performed at three different locations of the cylinder, ensuring that the measurement geometry satisfied the infinite thickness criterion. The spectra from the M400 CZT were analyzed using the code General Enrichment Meter (GEM). For analyzing the gamma-ray spectra from UF 6 cylinder, the GEM code is the appropriate tool since it relies only on the gamma-ray emissions from 235 U and not from other isotopes. Results from the spectral analysis were compared with the known abundance of 235 U in the cylinders, as well as with the International Target Values 2020 (ITV2020). The suitability of the different underlying techniques used by the various codes for UF 6 analysis is discussed. The challenges of measuring UF 6 contained in cylinders and mitigation strategies are highlighted.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2026

Thermal neutron imaging detector with wavelength shifting fiber and digital readout

Here, we developed a large area, digital thermal neutron imaging detector. The detector uses a 6 LiF/ZnS(Ag) neutron-sensitive scintillator combined with wavelength shifting fiber technology. The signals from fiber channels are amplified, integrated, and digitized using individual analog-to-digital converters for each channel. The neutron position is determined from the digitized signal using a least-squares gaussian-fitting algorithm. The detector size was 77 × 38 cm 2 (2926 cm 2 ), it provided 1.3 mm resolution, and its resolution can further be improved. The detector was designed for a powder diffraction neutron scattering beamline and provided substantial improvement of d-space resolution compared with existing detectors. This detector may have broader applications due to its large area and high spatial resolution extended over its large area.

6LiF/ZnS(Ag) scintillator↗
DOE OSTI2015

Simulation study of a 'fission electron-collection' neutron detector

In this work, a 'fission electron-collection' neutron detector was studied using the Monte Carlo method. The detector consists of two metal electrodes mounted in a vacuum, named coated and collection electrodes, respectively. The first electrode is coated with triuranium octoxide. The detector uses the 'fission electron-collection' technique, which does not need an intermediate material but directly collects electrons from the coating. Such a detector can realize a flat energy response and a fast time response, both of which are important in the fluence measurement of pulsed neutron sources. In this paper, the physical processes of detection are presented, as well as Monte Carlo simulation studies using the Geant4 toolkit. From the results, the sensitivity of the detector is approximately 1.5 x 10{sup -21} [C/(n/cm{sup 2})], and the FWHM of response function is 2.5 nanoseconds. Additionally, the characterization of escaping electrons is also presented, and the sensitivity of the detector is determined for various coating thicknesses. (authors)

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2018

GEANT4 investigation of 40 K and 222 Rn interference effects on actinide detection sensitivities of CEMRC BEGe lung detectors

Internal dosimetry measurements of trans-uranic (TRU) radionuclides within the human body can be accomplished by γ-ray spectroscopy using high-purity germanium detectors. While measurements are typically conducted inside shielded chambers in order to minimize the background detector signal, the presence of radioactive 40 K within the body cannot be removed, which produces a high-energy γ ray at 1461 keV. The 40 K, in addition to airborne 222 Rn, contributes to the radiation field within the chamber that increases to the minimum detectable activity that can be achieved in practice. The objective of the present work is to estimate the contributions from 40 K internal to the human body and airborne 222 Rn to the background signal in a lung counter germanium detector array using GEANT4 simulations, with a focus on TRU isotope energy region (17–59 keV). The investigations consisted of three main simulations: 1. Simulating the γ-ray flux at the geometric center of the CEMRC counting chamber arising from a 25 nCi source of 40 K from (a) a point source, and (b) a source distributed throughout a BOMAB phantom. 2. Simulating the response of the CEMRC BEGe detectors arising from a 25 nCi source of 40 K from (a) a point source, and (b) a source distributed throughout a BOMAB phantom. 3. Simulating the response of the CEMRC BEGe detectors to the environmental background in the counting chamber, consisting of airborne 222 Rn (0–4 pCi/L) and 40 K (0–160 nCi) internal to the human body. The results are used to investigate the 40 K background contribution to a routine spectrum recorded by the lung detectors at the CEMRC Internal Dosimetry laboratory over a typical half hour counting interval used in the dosimetry of radiological workers. The minimum detectable activity was calculated for various 222 Rn and 40 K activities and compared to experimentally determined values. The contribution of cosmic rays was not included in this investigation.

38 RADIATION CHEMISTRY, RADIOCHEMISTRY, AND NUCLEA↗
DOE OSTI2013

Large area liquid argon detectors for interrogation systems

Measurements of the efficiency, pulse shape, and energy and time resolution of liquid argon (LAr) detectors are presented. Liquefied noble gas-based (LNbG) detectors have been developed for the detection of dark matter and neutrinoless double-beta decay. However, the same qualities that make LNbG detectors ideal for these applications, namely their size, cost, efficiency, pulse shape discrimination and resolution, make them promising for portal screening and the detection of Special Nuclear Materials (SNM). Two 18-liter prototype detectors were designed, fabricated, and tested, one with pure LAr and the other doped with liquid Xe (LArXe). The LArXe detector presented the better time and energy resolution of 3.3 ns and 20% at 662 KeV, respectively. The total efficiency of the detector was measured to be 35% with 4.5% of the total photons detected in the photopeak.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2014

Theory and measurement of plasmonic terahertz detector response to large signals

Electron gas in the conduction channel of a Field Effect Transistor (FET) can support collective plasma oscillations tunable by the gate voltage. In the Dyakonov-Shur terahertz (THz) detector, nonlinearities in the plasma wave propagation in the gated channel of a FET lead to a constant source-to-drain voltage providing the detector output. We present the detector theory in the frame of the hydrodynamic model using the electron plasma Navier-Stokes and thermal transport equations, thus fully accounting for the hydrodynamic non-linearity, the viscosity, and pressure gradients in the detector response. Both resonant and broadband operations of the high electron mobility transistor (HEMT) based plasmonic detectors are described by this model. The relation between the electron channel density and gate voltage was modeled by the unified charge control model applicable both above and below the threshold voltage. The theoretical results are compared with the response measured in the short channel InGaAs HEMT and the analytical approximation. The THz source was operating at 1.63 THz, and the response was measured at varying signal intensities. The response of the detector operated in the open drain mode was measured above and below the threshold, and the theoretical and experimental results are shown to be in good agreement.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2014

Neutron emission measurement at the HL-2A tokamak device with a liquid scintillation detector

Neutron emission measurement at the HL-2A tokamak device with a liquid scintillation detector is described. The detector was placed at a location with little structure material in the field of view, and equipped with a gain monitoring system which could provide the possibility to evaluate the gain variation as well as to correct for the detector response. Time trace of the neutron emissivity was obtained and it was consistent with the result of a standard {sup 235}U fission chamber. During the plasma discharge the neutron yield could vary by about four orders of magnitude and the fluctuation of the detector gain was up to about 6%. Pulse height spectrum of the liquid scintillation detector was constructed and corrected with the aid of the gain monitoring system, and the correction was found to be essential for the assessment of the neutron energy spectrum. This successful measurement offered experience and confidence for the application of liquid scintillation detectors in the upcoming neutron camera system.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2016

A step-wise steerable source of illumination for low-noise “Violin-Mode” shadow sensors, intended for use in interferometric gravitational wave detectors

A steerable low-noise source of illumination is described for shadow-sensors having a displacement sensitivity of ∼100 pm (rms)/√Hz, at 500 Hz, over a measuring span of at least ±0.5 mm. These sensors were designed to detect lateral “Violin-Mode” resonances in the highly tensioned fused-silica suspension fibres of the test-masses/mirrors for the Advanced Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory gravitational wave detectors. The shadow sensors—one intended for each of the four fibres in a suspension—comprised a source of Near InfraRed (NIR) radiation (emitter) and a differential shadow-displacement sensor (detector), these bracketing the fibre under test. The suspension fibres themselves were approximately 600 mm long by 0.4 mm in diameter, and when illuminated from the side, they cast narrow, vertical, shadows onto their respective detectors—these being located at an effective distance of 50 fibre diameters behind the axes of the fibres themselves. The emitter described here was designed to compensate for a significant degree of mechanical drift or creep over time in the mean position of its suspension fibre. This was achieved by employing five adjacent columns of 8 × miniature NIR LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes, λ = 890 nm), with one column being activated at a time. When used in conjunction with a “reverse Galilean” telescope, the LED sources allowed the collimated beam from the emitter to be steered azimuthally in fine angular increments (0.65°), causing the fibre’s shadow to move laterally, in a step-wise manner, across the plane of its facing detector. Each step in shadow position was approximately 0.23 mm in size, and this allowed the fibre’s shadow to be re-centred, so as to bridge once again both elements of its photodiode detector—even if the fibre was off-centred by as much as ±0.5 mm. Re-centring allowed Violin-Mode vibrations of the fibre to be sensed once again as differential AC photocurrents, these flowing in anti-phase in the two elements of the “split-photodiode” detector.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2016

Thin epitaxial silicon PIN detectors for thermal neutron detection with improved gamma (γ) discrimination

In order to improve the gamma discrimination capability for thermal neutron measurements using silicon PIN detectors, a novel approach of use of thin epitaxial silicon PIN detectors was investigated. Thin epitaxial silicon detectors with thickness of 15 µm were developed and their performance was tested with thermal neutrons using {sup 10}B converter. The performance of this detector was compared with the performance of a 300 µm silicon detector. The results of experiments presented in this paper indicate that thin epitaxial silicon detectors can significantly improve γ discrimination for thermal neutron measurements.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2016

Growth and device processing of hexagonal boron nitride epilayers for thermal neutron and deep ultraviolet detectors

Solid-state neutron detectors with high performance are highly sought after for the detection of fissile materials. However, direct-conversion neutron detectors based on semiconductors with a measureable efficiency have not been realized. We report here the first successful demonstration of a direct-conversion semiconductor neutron detector with an overall detection efficiency for thermal neutrons of 4% and a charge collection efficiency as high as 83%. The detector is based on a 2.7 μm thick {sup 10}B-enriched hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) epitaxial layer. The results represent a significant step towards the realization of practical neutron detectors based on h-BN epilayers. Neutron detectors based on h-BN are expected to possess all the advantages of semiconductor devices including wafer-scale processing, compact size, light weight, and ability to integrate with other functional devices.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2020

Monolithically-Fabricated Tunable Long-Wave Infrared Detectors Based on Dynamic Graphene Metasurfaces.

In this paper, the design, fabrication, and characterization of an actively tunable long-wave infrared detector, made possible through direct integration of a graphene-enabled metasurface with a conventional type-II superlattice infrared detector, are reported. This structure allows for post-fabrication tuning of the detector spectral response through voltage-induced modification of the carrier density within graphene and, therefore, its plasmonic response. These changes modify the transmittance through the metasurface, which is fabricated monolithically atop the detector, allowing for spectral control of light reaching the detector. Importantly, this structure provides a fabrication-controlled alignment of the metasurface filter to the detector pixel and is entirely solid-state. Using single pixel devices, relative changes in the spectral response exceeding 8% have been realized. These proof-of-concept devices present a path toward solid-state hyperspectral imaging with independent pixel-to-pixel spectral control through a voltage-actuated dynamic response.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2024

Solid, structured composite neutron detectors with high dynamic range capability

Neutron detectors are essential across disciplines such as fundamental science, nuclear security, safeguards, and civilian applications. While 3 He-filled gas proportional counters have long been revered for their efficacy in detecting thermal neutrons and praised for their efficiency, neutron/gamma discrimination, and stability, the scarcity of 3He has spurred a search for alternatives. Here, we explore a solid structured scintillating particle composite (SPC) consisting of 6 Li-containing scintillating glass particles within an acrylic matrix as a neutron detector for high dynamic range applications. We show for the first time that an SPC neutron detector can boast an intrinsic detection efficiency of 0.261% for pure 252 Cf fission neutrons and an overall neutron detection efficiency of (0.546 ± 0.003)% at the Neutron Free-in-Air facility while being able to function in an intense gamma-ray environment. We also show that the SPC neutron detector supports fast neutron capture times and enables a dual-readout scheme that extends the detector dynamic range to high incident neutron fluxes. A scalable fabrication process allows for tailoring the SPC detector properties to the requirements of specific applications. Good agreement is found between the experimental results taken with a National Institute of Standards and Technology traceable 252 Cf source and the coupled MCNP6 and optical-ray-tracing simulations.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2026

Muon tracking in a LiquidO opaque scintillator detector

LiquidO is an innovative radiation detector concept. The core idea is to exploit stochastic light confinement in a highly scattering medium to self-segment the detector volume. In this paper, we demonstrate event-by-event muon tracking in a LiquidO opaque scintillator detector prototype. The detector consists of a 30 mm cubic scintillator volume instrumented with 64 wavelength-shifting fibres arranged in an 8 × 8 grid with a 3.2 mm pitch and read out by silicon photomultipliers. A wax-based opaque scintillator with a scattering length of approximately 0.5 mm is used. The tracking performance of this LiquidO detector is characterised with cosmic-ray muons and the position resolution is demonstrated to be 450 μm per row of fibres. These results highlight the potential of LiquidO opaque scintillator detectors to achieve fine spatial resolution, enabling precise particle tracking and imaging.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Variational autoencoders for at-source data reduction and anomaly detection in high energy particle detectors

Detectors in next-generation high-energy physics experiments face several daunting requirements, such as high data rates, damaging radiation exposure, and stringent constraints on power, space, and latency. To address these challenges, machine learning in readout electronics can be leveraged for smart detector designs, enabling intelligent inference and data reduction at-source. Variational autoencoders (VAEs) offer a variety of benefits for front-end readout; an on-sensor encoder can perform efficient lossy data compression while simultaneously providing a latent space representation that can be used for anomaly detection. Results are presented from low-latency and resource-efficient VAEs for front-end data processing in a futuristic silicon pixel detector. Encoder-based data compression is found to preserve good performance of off-detector analysis while significantly reducing the off-detector data rate as compared to a similarly sized data filtering approach. Furthermore, the latent space information is found to be a useful discriminator in the context of real-time sensor defect monitoring. Together, these results highlight the multifaceted utility of autoencoder-based front-end readout schemes and motivate their consideration in future detector designs.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2015

Bunch mode specific rate corrections for PILATUS3 detectors

PILATUS X-ray detectors are in operation at many synchrotron beamlines around the world. This article reports on the characterization of the new PILATUS3 detector generation at high count rates. As for all counting detectors, the measured intensities have to be corrected for the dead-time of the counting mechanism at high photon fluxes. The large number of different bunch modes at these synchrotrons as well as the wide range of detector settings presents a challenge for providing accurate corrections. To avoid the intricate measurement of the count rate behaviour for every bunch mode, a Monte Carlo simulation of the counting mechanism has been implemented, which is able to predict the corrections for arbitrary bunch modes and a wide range of detector settings. This article compares the simulated results with experimental data acquired at different synchrotrons. It is found that the usage of bunch mode specific corrections based on this simulation improves the accuracy of the measured intensities by up to 40% for high photon rates and highly structured bunch modes. For less structured bunch modes, the instant retrigger technology of PILATUS3 detectors substantially reduces the dependency of the rate correction on the bunch mode. The acquired data also demonstrate that the instant retrigger technology allows for data acquisition up to 15 million photons per second per pixel.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2018

Operational Experience With the GEM Detector Assembly Lines for the CMS Forward Muon Upgrade

The CMS Collaboration has been creating large-area triple-gas electron multiplier (GEM) detectors to be installed in the muon Endcap regions of the CMS experiment in 2019 to maintain forward muon trigger and tracking performance at the High-Luminosity upgrade of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC); 10 preproduction detectors were built at CERN to commission the first assembly line and the quality controls (QCs). These were installed in the CMS detector in early 2017 and participated in the 2017 LHC run. The collaboration has prepared several additional assembly and QC lines for distributed mass production of 160 GEM detectors at various sites worldwide. In 2017, these additional production sites have optimized construction techniques and QC procedures and validated them against common specifications by constructing additional preproduction detectors. Using the specific experience from one production site as an example, we report on how the QCs make use of independent hardware and trained personnel to ensure fast and reliable production. Preliminary results on the construction status of CMS GEM detectors are presented with details of the assembly sites involvement.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2013

A comparative study of small field total scatter factors and dose profiles using plastic scintillation detectors and other stereotactic dosimeters: The case of the CyberKnife

Purpose: Small-field dosimetry is challenging, and the main limitations of most dosimeters are insufficient spatial resolution, water nonequivalence, and energy dependence. The purpose of this study was to compare plastic scintillation detectors (PSDs) to several commercial stereotactic dosimeters by measuring total scatter factors and dose profiles on a CyberKnife system. Methods: Two PSDs were developed, having sensitive volumes of 0.196 and 0.785 mm{sup 3}, and compared with other detectors. The spectral discrimination method was applied to subtract Cerenkov light from the signal. Both PSDs were compared to four commercial stereotactic dosimeters by measuring total scatter factors, namely, an IBA dosimetry stereotactic field diode (SFD), a PTW 60008 silicon diode, a PTW 60012 silicon diode, and a microLion. The measured total scatter factors were further compared with those of two independent Monte Carlo studies. For the dose profiles, two commercial detectors were used for the comparison, i.e., a PTW 60012 silicon diode and Gafchromics EBT2. Total scatter factors for a CyberKnife system were measured in circular fields with diameters from 5 to 60 mm. Dose profiles were measured for the 5- and 60-mm cones. The measurements were performed in a water tank at a 1.5-cm depth and an 80-cm source-axis distance. Results: The total scatter factors measured using all the detectors agreed within 1% with the Monte Carlo values for cones of 20 mm or greater in diameter. For cones of 10-20 mm in diameter, the PTW 60008 silicon diode was the only dosimeter whose measurements did not agree within 1% with the Monte Carlo values. For smaller fields (<10 mm), each dosimeter type showed different behaviors. The silicon diodes over-responded because of their water nonequivalence; the microLion and 1.0-mm PSD under-responded because of a volume-averaging effect; and the 0.5-mm PSD was the only detector within the uncertainties of the Monte Carlo simulations for all the cones. The PSDs, the PTW 60012 silicon diode, and the Gafchromics EBT2 agreed within 2% and 0.2 mm (gamma evaluation) for the measured dose profiles except in the tail of the 60-mm cone. Conclusions: Silicon diodes can be used to accurately measure small-field dose profiles but not to measure total scatter factors, whereas PSDs can be used to accurately measure both. The authors' measurements show that the use of a 1.0-mm PSD resulted in a negligible volume-averaging effect (under-response of Almost-Equal-To 1%) down to a field size of 5 mm. Therefore, PSDs are strong candidates to become reference radiosurgery detectors for beam characterization and quality assurance measurements.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2014

SU-E-T-423: TrueBeam Small Field Dosimetry Using Commercial Plastic Scintillation and Other Stereotactic Detectors

Purpose: To perform dose profile and output factor (OF) measurements with the Exradin W1 plastic scintillation detector (PSD) for small fields made by the high-definition multi-leaf collimator (MLC) on the TrueBeam STx system and to compare them to values measured with an IBA CC01 ionization chamber and a Sun Nuclear Edge detector diode for 6 MV photon beams. Methods: The Exradin W1 is a new small volume near-water equivalent and energy independent PSD manufactured by Standard Imaging, Inc. All measurements were performed in an IBA Blue Phantom water tank. Square MLC-shaped fields with sides ranging from 0.5 cm to 2 cm and jawshaped fields with sides ranging from 1 cm to 40 cm were measured using an SAD setup at 10 cm depth. Dose profile and percent depth dose (PDD) measurements were also taken under the same conditions for MLC fields 0.5×0.5 and 1×1 cm2 in size with jaws at 2×2cm2. The CC01 and W1 were vertically mounted. Results: OFs measured with the W1 for jaw only square fields were consistent with the ones measured with a Farmers PTW TN33013 ion chamber (1.8% maximum deviation). OF and penumbra measurement results are presented below. PDDs measured for all detectors are within 1.5% for the 0.5×0.5 cm2 and within 1% for the 1×1 cm2 MLC fields.Output factors:MLC size W1 CC01 EDGE0.5cm 0.555 0.541 0.5851.0cm 0.716 0.702 0.7331.5cm 0.779 0.761 0.7772.0cm 0.804 0.785 0.796Penumbras (mm):MLC size W1 CC01 EDGE0.5cm 2.7 2.9 2.51.0cm 3.0 3.4 2. Conclusion: OFs measured for small MLC fields were consistent with the ones measured with the other stereotactic detectors. Measured penumbras are consistent with detector size. The Exradin W1 PSD is an excellent choice for characterizing MLC-shaped small beam dosimetry used for stereotactic radiosurgery and body radiation therapy. Sam Beddar would like to disclose a NIH/NCI SBIR Phase II grant (2R44CA153824-02A1) with Standard Imaging, Title: “Water-Equivalent Plastic Scintillation Detectors for Small Field Radiotherapy”.

07 ISOTOPE AND RADIATION SOURCES↗