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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 109 records · Page 6
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2020

Codisposal Waste Package Loading Options for DOE SNF and HLW

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is responsible for managing spent nuclear fuel (SNF) that is currently in, or will in the future come into, its possession. DOE must continue to safely store that SNF, transport it to an interim storage site or a repository, and dispose of it. These fuels come from a wide range of reactor types, such as light- and heavy-water-moderated reactors, graphite-moderated reactors, and breeder reactors, with various cladding materials and enrichments. Many of these reactors, now decommissioned, had unique design features, such as core configuration, fuel element and assembly geometry, moderator and coolant materials, operational characteristics, and neutron spatial and spectral properties resulting in a large diversity of reactor and fuel designs. Because of the wide variety and condition of SNF, a robust canister termed the DOE Standardized SNF Canister was proposed that would confine radionuclides and preclude moderator. The DOE Standard SNF Canister had four variations consisting of a 10- or 15-foot length and an 18- or 24-inch diameter. For ultimate disposal in the Yucca Mountain Repository these canisters were to be grouped with 24-inch diameter HLW canisters in a codisposal waste package. The 18-inch DOE Standardized SNF Canister could be placed in the middle of five HLW canisters. The 24-inch DOE Standardized SNF Canister would take the place of one the five HLW canister on the outer ring in the codisposal waste package. No DOE Standardized SNF Canisters have been loaded, and many fuel types can be loaded in multiple canisters. Depending on the selected diameter of the DOE Standardized SNF Canister for a particular fuel, the number of potential codisposal waste packages could vary. In addition, different types of DOE SNF may be able to be combined in a single canister. This could significantly change the number of DOE SNF canisters that are loaded and result in a decrease of the number of total potential codisposal waste packages. Ultimately, if too many HLW canisters need disposition, then a reduction in the number of DOE Standardized SNF Canisters will change the final total of codisposal waste packages very little. Likewise, if the ratio of DOE Standardized SNF Canisters to HLW canister produced is too high, then DOE Standardized SNF Canisters will not have enough HLW canisters to surround them in the codisposal waste package. This paper examines the results of differing loading strategies for a few DOE SNFs. It also compares the ranges of DOE Standardized SNF Canisters that may be produced to the ranges of HLW canisters that may be produced in order to determine potential scenarios.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Design Load Basis Guidance for Distributed Wind Turbines

Aeroelastic modeling (AM) is the primary methodology for structural and performance assessment of any wind turbine. Nonetheless, the use of AM in the distributed wind (DW) industry sector is limited due to several challenges (Damiani, Davis, & Summerville, 2022). One of these challenges lies in the perceived complexity of generating a proper set of numerical simulations to extract and process the key outputs for component design and verification, and, ultimately, achieve certification. This makes it difficult to reliably predict the structural and performance response of small wind turbines. From the investigation carried out in (Damiani & Davis, 2022), it is apparent that many stakeholders in this sector believe that a comprehensive guide for developing a design load basis (DLB) for distributed wind turbines (DWTs) is necessary.

17 WIND ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

High-strength 3D printed poly(lactic acid) composites reinforced by shear-aligned polymer-grafted cellulose nanofibrils

This work demonstrates the application of pilot-scale surface functionalization of cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) by aqueous grafting-through polymerization and subsequent spray drying in 3D printed poly(lactic acid) (PLA) composites. Grafted-CNF composites attain an ultimate tensile strength of 88 ± 3 MPa and a tensile modulus of elasticity of 7.8 ± 1.3 GPa in the printing direction at 20 wt% reinforcement loading. These increases, 42% and 139% over neat PLA, respectively, represent the strongest reported 3D printed CNF/PLA composite to date in the literature. The mechanisms behind these improvements are investigated by comparisons to neat PLA and unmodified spray-dried CNF/PLA controls using melt rheology, dynamic mechanical analysis, and assessment of the reinforcement dispersion. These experiments reveal that improved network formation and shear-induced alignment of the grafted CNFs facilitate the remarkable tensile properties of the printed composites.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

FLAW STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SURFACE CRACKS IN DOE STANDARD CANISTERS UNDER OPERATION LOADS AND WELDING RESIDUAL STRESSES

There are over 3000 commercial spent nuclear fuel (SNF) storage canisters that are made of stainless steel and planned for multi-purpose functions of SNF handling: interim storage, transportation, and ultimate disposal at a future SNF disposition location. To date, many multi-purpose canisters (MPC) are located in coastal regions for long-term storage. The canisters are fabricated by welding, and post-welding heat treatment is not required for relieving welding residual stresses (WRS). As a result, these canisters may be susceptible to chloride induced stress corrosion cracking (CISCC) due to the chloride-bearing marine salts. The flaw stability analysis of MPC canisters was performed at SRNL (i.e., PVP2016-4935 and PVP2016-63887) for through-wall flaws and for surface flaws respectively, where WRS was considered, and the failure assessment diagram (FAD)-based fracture mechanics method codified by API 579-1/ASME FFS-1-2007 Edition was adopted.

DOE standard canister↗
DOE OSTI2022

Investigation of deformation mechanisms in an advanced FeCrAl alloy using in-situ SEM-EBSD testing

The deformation mechanisms associated with uniaxial tensile testing are observed by conducting tensile experiments of an FeCrAl alloy using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD). Prior to the deformation, investigated alloy was consisting grain and precipitate size of ~63.0 μm and ~6.7 μm, respectively. The recorded SEM micrographs and EBSD data at increasing levels of strains revealed the complex phenomena of slip bands’ formation in the presence of surface grain morphology evolution and their (001), (110) and (111) crystallographic planes distortions. The grains with orientation (110)||tensile direction (TD) shows higher shape change; however, (001)||TD and (111)||TD oriented grains show higher lattice gradient formation. Extracted information from the EBSD indicates that the crystallographic rotations drive towards specific, fiber-like texture in relation to the loading direction. Postmortem analysis of the recorded microstructure during the tensile deformation explains the phenomena of crack formation in the hard-intermetallic particles before the ultimate tensile strength (UTS). However, after the UTS, pores were identified in the neck that resulted from extensive plastic deformation. In-depth analysis was carried out to identify the cause of cracks and pores formation phenomena during the tensile test.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

The STAT7 Code for Statistical Propagation of Uncertainties In Steady-State Thermal Hydraulics Analysis of Plate-Fueled Reactors

STAT7 was written to automate many of the steady-state thermal hydraulic safety calculations for the MIT research reactor, both for conversion of the reactor from highly enriched uranium fuel to low-enriched uranium fuel and for future fuel re-loads after the conversion. A Monte-Carlo statistical propagation approach is used to treat uncertainties in important parameters in the analysis. These safety calculations are ultimately intended to protect against high fuel plate temperatures due to critical heat flux or departure from nucleate boiling or onset of flow instability; but additional margin is obtained by basing the limiting safety settings on avoiding onset of nucleate boiling. STAT7 can simultaneously analyze all of the axial nodes of all of the fuel plates and all of the coolant channels for one stripe of a fuel element. The stripes run the length of the fuel, from the bottom to the top. Power splits are calculated for each axial node of each plate to determine how much of the power goes out each face of the plate. By running STAT7 multiple times, full core analysis can be performed by analyzing the margin to ONB for each axial node of each stripe of each plate of each element in the core.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2022

The role of plasma instabilities in relativistic radiation-mediated shocks: stability analysis and particle-in-cell simulations

ABSTRACT Relativistic radiation-mediated shocks are likely formed in prodigious cosmic explosions. The structure and emission of such shocks are regulated by copious production of electron–positron pairs inside the shock-transition layer. It has been pointed out recently that substantial abundance of positrons inside the shock leads to a velocity separation of the different plasma constituents, which is expected to induce a rapid growth of plasma instabilities. In this paper, we study the hierarchy of plasma microinstabilities growing in an electron-ion plasma loaded with pairs and subject to a radiation force. Linear stability analysis indicates that such a system is unstable to the growth of various plasma modes which ultimately become dominated by a current filamentation instability driven by the relative drift between the ions and the pairs. These results are validated by particle-in-cell simulations that further probe the non-linear regime of the instabilities, and the pair-ion coupling in the microturbulent electromagnetic field. Based on this analysis, we derive a reduced-transport equation for the particles via pitch-angle scattering in the microturbulence and demonstrate that it can couple the different species and lead to non-adiabatic compression via a Joule-like heating. The heating of the pairs and, conceivably, the formation of non-thermal distributions, arising from the microturbulence, can affect the observed shock-breakout signal in ways unaccounted for by current single-fluid models.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Comprehensive Material Characterization and Simultaneous Model Calibration for Improved Computational Simulation Credibility

Computational simulation is increasingly relied upon for high-consequence engineering decisions, and a foundational element to solid mechanics simulations is a credible material model. Our ultimate vision is to interlace material characterization and model calibration in a real-time feedback loop, where the current model calibration results will drive the experiment to load regimes that add the most useful information to reduce parameter uncertainty. The current work investigated one key step to this Interlaced Characterization and Calibration (ICC) paradigm, using a finite load-path tree to incorporate history/path dependency of nonlinear material models into a network of surrogate models that replace computationally-expensive finite-element analyses. Our reference simulation was an elastoplastic material point subject to biaxial deformation with a Hill anisotropic yield criterion. Training data was generated using either a space-filling or adaptive sampling method, and surrogates were built using either Gaussian process or polynomial chaos expansion methods. Surrogate error was evaluated to be on the order of 10 ⁻5 and 10 ⁻3 percent for the space-filling and adaptive sampling training data, respectively. Direct Bayesian inference was performed with the surrogate network and with the reference material point simulator, and results agreed to within 3 significant figures for the mean parameter values, with a reduction in computational cost over 5 orders of magnitude. These results bought down risk regarding the surrogate network and facilitated a successful FY22-24 full LDRD proposal to research and develop the complete ICC paradigm.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Benchmarking of three DWM-based wake models at below-rated wind speeds

Wind turbine wake models are essential tools for predicting power losses and structural loads in wind farms. Among these, the dynamic wake meandering (DWM) model, included as a recommended approach in the International Electrotechnical Commission design standard, is a widely used engineering-fidelity method that balances accuracy and computational cost. This study compares the performance of three DWM-based wake model implementations (from the Technical University of Denmark, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and the Institute for Energy Technology) under below-rated wind speed conditions. Model predictions of wake flow, power output, and structural loads for a four-turbine row are evaluated across different ambient turbulence levels and wind-direction misalignments and compared against high-fidelity large-eddy simulation results. All three models captured the overall wake evolution and mean turbine performance with reasonable accuracy; their predicted time-averaged thrust and power were typically within 5 %–10 % of the large-eddy simulation benchmark. However, notable differences emerged in wake structure and unsteady load predictions, with discrepancies increasing for turbines further downstream. These differences highlight the importance of modelling choices such as wake summation and turbulence treatment, which strongly influence power-deficit and fatigue-load predictions. Comparison with large-eddy simulations reveals each approach's strengths and weaknesses, indicating where improvements are needed. Overall, the findings point to specific refinements for DWM models to improve their fidelity, ultimately enabling more robust wake predictions for wind farm design and operation.

17 WIND ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2020

30 cm Drop Modeling

This report documents modeling and analysis of the 30 cm cask drop scenario for spent nuclear fuel (SNF) casks. The 30 cm drop is an important hypothetical dynamic loading scenario for SNF because 10 CFR 71.71 defines testing requirements for normal conditions of transport (NCT) of SNF packages, and free drop (of 30 cm for the heaviest packages) tests are required. Other NCT conditions specified in 10 CFR 71.71 include vibration normally incident to transport, and DOE’s multimodal transportation test (MMTT) and related analysis concluded that mechanical shock and vibration incident to transportation is negligible for SNF structural integrity because the loads are so small. The SNF cask 30 cm drop has a lot more potential to cause damage to SNF because the kinetic energy and momentum of the system is stopped abruptly during the cask impact event. Test data and model predictions both agree that the SNF assemblies are subjected to significantly higher loads in a cask drop event than normal transportation shock and vibration, but currently there is no reason to expect gross structural damage of the fuel assembly or widespread SNF cladding failure as a result of a 30 cm cask drop. The ultimate goal of this work is to close the knowledge gap of stress profiles on SNF rods and fuel assembly components during NCT, and this report describes the progress toward reaching that goal as well as a plan for finishing this work over the next year or two. Key remaining tasks include refining the fuel assembly model, calculating a selection of specific fuel assembly cases to populate the damage model, and finally running the damage model to predict the full general response range of 30 cm drop loads on SNF.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2025

Tensile and fatigue characterization of multifunctional composites

This research is part of a larger effort to develop advanced self-sensing multifunctional polymer composites that are both lightweight and high-strength, while also enabling structural damage detection, fatigue cycle monitoring, and service life prediction. These multifunctional composites are particularly sought after in the automotive industry for their potential to significantly reduce vehicle weight and simultaneously provide additional functionality like condition monitoring to enhance safety. This study examines the tensile and fatigue properties of a composite material composed of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) polymer embedded with piezoelectric barium titanate (BaTiO3) nanoparticles. The integration of BaTiO3 nanoparticles not only supplies the material with self-sensing capabilities but also influences its mechanical properties. While a high content of BaTiO3 nanoparticles is desired to enhance sensing capacity, the brittle nature of such materials causes concerns of decreased strength characteristics. To explore this, various composite samples were fabricated with nanoparticle contents ranging from 0 wt% to 20 wt%. These samples underwent tensile testing to measure their ultimate tensile strengths and Young’s moduli. Following this, fatigue tests were conducted to generate S-N curves, which are essential for understanding the material's durability under cyclic loading. The findings from these tests assess the impact of nanoparticle content on the composite’s tensile strength and fatigue life, providing essential insights that can guide the optimization and design of future self-sensing multifunctional composites. The results suggest that 5 wt% BaTiO3 provides an optimal balance between mechanical properties and nanoparticle concentration, making it a promising composition for semi-structural applications.

Bowland, Christopher [ORNL] (ORCID:000000021229431↗
DOE OSTI2021

Stochastic Continuous-time Flexibility Scheduling and Pricing in Wholesale Electricity Markets

Large-scale integration of intermittent renewable energy sources (RES) is calling for additional flexibility resources as well as more advanced modeling and optimization techniques to account for the increasing uncertainty and variability in power systems operation. As the RES integration gains momentum, the magnitude and frequency of their variations increase, which may trigger ramping scarcity events in real-time power systems operation. This necessitates revisiting the present definition of power systems flexibility and reserve services to reflect their robustness and adequacy towards sub-interval variations of the load and RES, as well as adjusting the operation models to accommodate the new reserve services. This project took a fundamental approach and aimed at developing continuous-time scheduling and pricing model that accurately models the continuous-time variations of load and RES and efficiently deploys the ramping capability of flexible resources to compensate the sources of variability and uncertainty in the market. In this regard, this project pursued the following goals: Developing stochastic multi-fidelity continuous-time optimization models for scheduling of energy storage (ES) systems and flexible loads in wholesale energy markets; Developing the theory and practices of continuous-time locational marginal pricing for valuating energy storage systems and flexible loads in wholesale energy markets; Developing function space solution approach to convert the proposed stochastic multi-fidelity continuous-time optimization models into tractable mixed-integer linear optimization models; and Defining flexibility reserve as a new type of reserve in markets that would enable ultimate participation of energy storage devices in provision of services to compensate the variability and uncertainty of RES in electricity markets. This project successfully completed all five major tasks defined in the SOPO, and produced 8 high-impact journal papers, 6 conference papers, 3 published U.S. patents, and one web-based software for continuous-time operation optimization of power systems. The application of the proposed flexibility reserve and the stochastic multi-fidelity continuous-time operation scheduling models would modify the forward commitment and schedule of generating units, ES devices and flexible loads, and would line up the resources in such a way that the composition of available resources is better prepared to respond to the sub-hourly variations of the load and renewable resources in real-time operation. Therefore, this project paves the way to sustainable, reliable, and economic integration of renewable energy resources in power system, supporting the progress towards reaching the national targets on energy independence. Even if the proposed models offers a radically different point of view as compared to existing models, it does not alter fundamentally the architecture of power systems operations, nor the complexity of the scheduling problem, so the integration of this project in power systems is extremely practical.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2025

Designing Physicochemically‐Ordered Interphases for High‐Performance Composites

To enhance the mechanical properties of carbon fiber‐reinforced polymer composites, a physicochemical scaffold is designed incorporating microscopically architected chemically reactive nanofibers that act as a multiscale bridge between the carbon fibers and the matrix. Thermally activated nanofibers leverage their morphologically driven mechanochemical properties to form covalent bonds with adjacent polymer molecules, creating a co‐continuous network that dramatically enhances fiber‐matrix load transfer. By meticulously controlling the nanofiber architecture through variable surface area, functional group availability, and polymer chain alignment effects, the extent of covalent bonding between nanofibers and the matrix is manipulated ultimately resulting in improved carbon fiber‐matrix adhesion. Further, the concept was validated using polyacrylonitrile nanofibers within an acrylonitrile butadiene styrene matrix in a discontinuous carbon fiber‐reinforced composite system. Nanomechanical studies using atomic force microscopy and low‐field nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy confirmed immobilized, chemically transferred, and ordered nanostructures at the interphase. The resulting composites demonstrated ≈56% and ≈175% improvements in tensile strength and toughness, respectively, compared to composites without nanofiber. Comprehensive thermal, rheological, and X‐ray scattering analyses, along side all‐atomic molecular dynamics simulations, revealed the fundamental mechanisms behind these improvements in mechanical behavior. The versatility and efficacy of the approach have the potential to address longstanding interphase challenges in the composite industry.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

A Double-Signal Retail Pricing Scheme for Acquiring Operational Flexibility from Batteries

Batteries can provide valuable operational flexibility to facilitate the system efficiency. However, there lacks market environments to effectively harness and monetize the value of these assets. Most existing works apply a profit-oriented single-signal pricing scheme, which mixes the value of energy and flexibility together and may ultimately raise the electricity bill. Therefore, this paper proposes a profit-neutral double-signal retail pricing scheme that distinguishes elastic market players (i.e., batteries) from inelastic market players (i.e., inflexible loads) and quantifies the value of energy and flexibility separately. Experimental results indicate that under the incentive provided by the proposed retail pricing scheme: 1) The system efficiency benefit aligns with benefits to both batteries and inflexible loads; 2) Value of operational flexibility, contributing to improve the energy efficiency, can be transparently priced and fairly allocated among batteries; and 3) The dominant role in which inflexible loads play on determining the market price is avoided.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Steady state thermo-mechanics and material property definition framework for analyzing DCLL blanket in the fusion nuclear science facility

In this work, a thermo-mechanics model that relies on creating the material property definition framework (MPDF) and multiphysics coupling of the heat transfer and the solid mechanics modules is developed to determine the structural integrity of the recently designed dual cooled lead lithium (DCLL) inboard blanket (IB) for the Fusion Nuclear Science Facility under steady state loads. The MPDF is called to supply fusion relevant neutron irradiation and temperature induced changes in material properties during multiphysics finite element runs, and PbLi temperature profiles are used to approximate Magnetohydrodynamics effect and the nuclear volumetric heating on the PbLi. Neutron irradiation and temperature induced reduction of the yield and ultimate strengths of F82H steel at the first wall (FW) are quantified for one year. A blanket in an assembly with gaps between blanket sectors and another blanket in an assembly with no gaps between blanket sectors, both exposed to radiation damage that lasted for one year are analyzed. Analysis using the elastic ITER structural design criteria for in-vessel components (ITER SDC-IC) design rules and a linear isotropic-hardening-type elastoplastic material model are used where most appropriate. The IB blanket with gaps between blanket sectors will withstand the steady state combined thermal and coolant loads for one year operational period but will fail if no gaps are allowed between blanket sectors. It is recommended that a gap of about 7.62 mm should be provided between IB blanket sectors during assembly which would close up during service, stop neutron streaming, reduce stresses and reduce bending of the FW into the scrape-off layer.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

The comparative strength and fracture toughness properties of commercial 95W-3.5Ni1.5Fe and 95W-3.5Ni1.5Cu tungsten heavy alloys

Due to the sharp surface cracks resulting from high and cyclic thermal loads, fracture toughness is a crucial property for fusion divertor materials. Tungsten heavy alloys (WHA) have emerged as a leading candidate for plasma facing component applications. Both the WNiFe and WNiCu WHAs have been considered. However, there is no fracture toughness data in the literature on the WNiCu WHA. Therefore, maximum load elastic–plastic fracture toughness (K Jm ) of a commercial 95W-3.5Ni1.5Cu (NiCu) WHA plate is reported here for the first time. The NiCu WHA K Jm is compared to a corresponding K Jm for commercial 95W-3.5Ni1.5Fe (NiFe) WHA, along with comparisons of their respective microstructures, microhardness, and tensile properties. Although their room temperature yield strengths are similar (≈ 600 MPa), the NiFe WHA has higher ultimate stress (818 MPa vs. 642 MPa) and total elongation (8% vs. 1.2%) compared to the NiCu WHA. Most notably, the room temperature elastic–plastic K Jm for the NiFe WHA of ≈ 80 ± 8 MPa$\sqrt{m}$, is nearly twice that of the NiCu WHA at ≈ 47 ± 4 MPa$\sqrt{m}$. Further, while the NiFe WHA experienced stable ductile tearing, the crack propagated unstably (approximately elastically) after reaching the maximum load in the NiCu WHA. The higher K Jm of the NiFe WHA is attributed to its higher flow stress and ductility, along with the energy dissipation and microcrack dilatational stress shielding, provided by a wide distribution of arrested process-zone microcracks, which are largely absent in the NiCu WHA. Since, the 95W-NiFe WHA has distinctly better mechanical properties than 95W-NiCu WHA, it is a more suitable candidate for the fusion reactor application.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Biaxial steel plated concrete constitutive models for composite structures: Implementation and validation

The Steel-plated Concrete (SC) technique is an alternative construction technique with faster onsite construction speed, reduced construction time, and increased structural performance. Aiming to predict the force transfer mechanism of SC elements, an innovative constitutive model package is proposed by implementing experimental-based biaxial steel plate concrete models into the nonlinear finite element (FE) model “Membrane Model of SC (MM-CS).” First, the formulation and implementation of the MM-SC is illustrated in detail, including the equilibrium and compatibility equations and the implementation of constitutive models. Next, various experimental data of SC members are selected and simulated using the proposed MM-SC model. In this research, two types of structures, SC panels and framed SC shear walls, and three types of loading conditions, including uniaxial compression, pure shear, and combined axial-flexural-shear tests, are analyzed respectively. Good agreements were obtained between the reported results and the FE simulation results in terms of yield capacity and ultimate capacity, proving the reliability of the implemented analytical constitutive material models and the biaxial membrane model formulations.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2025

American WAKE Experiment (AWAKEN) Field Campaign Report

The American WAKE experimeNt (AWAKEN) was a large-scale, international collaborative field campaign funded primarily by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Wind Energy Technologies Office. Its main purpose was to gather detailed observations of wind farm-atmosphere interactions to improve understanding of wind farm physics, validate and improve simulation tools, lower uncertainties in wind farm modeling, understand environmental impacts, and ultimately reduce the cost and increase the reliability of wind energy systems. The campaign specifically focused on seven testable hypotheses that include characterizing wind turbine and wind farm wake effects, wind farm blockage, turbulent mixing, structural loading impacts, local environmental impacts, and testing wind farm control technologies. AWAKEN was a highly collaborative effort involving numerous agencies, including: DOE, through the Wind Energy Technologies Office and the Office of Science Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) User Facility, the U.S. Department of Commerce through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, many American universities, and internationally funded collaborators from Germany and Brazil.

17 WIND ENERGY↗