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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS2026

PROTECT: Production and Reuse of Thermally Efficient Ceramic Thermal Protection Systems

PROTECT (Production and Reuse Of Thermally Efficient Ceramic TPS) is a NASA Early Career Initiative focused on developing the next generation of reusable ceramic thermal protection systems (TPS). This project addresses key challenges in TPS design, including temperature capability, thermal stability, and refurbishment time, by integrating novel material development with predictive modeling. Leveraging enhanced capabilities in NASA’s Porous Microstructure Analysis (PuMA) software, PROTECT introduces new modeling tools to predict the thermal and mechanical behavior of fibrous ceramic materials. These tools enable accurate prediction of performance metrics such as thermal conductivity and structural integrity, reducing reliance on costly physical testing. Preliminary advances in these areas will be presented. To support model validation, PROTECT is building a comprehensive database of raw material properties using advanced characterization techniques, including micro computed tomography (CT) scanning in collaboration with the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (UIUC). The presentation will detail the sampling workflows and analysis methods used to generate this detailed microstructural data and how it is used to develop improved models in PuMA. This multi-center collaboration, spanning NASA (JSC, ARC, KSC, GRC), Oak Ridge National Laboratory, UIUC, and SpaceX, is developing tailored TPS solutions for LEO, lunar, and Martian missions. By bridging heritage systems with the demands of modern spaceflight, PROTECT contributes to the advancement of reusable TPS technologies for future exploration missions.

Propulsion, Refractory, and Coating Materials↗
NASA NTRS2006

Domed, 40-cm-Diameter Ion Optics for an Ion Thruster

Improved accelerator and screen grids for an ion accelerator have been designed and tested in a continuing effort to increase the sustainable power and thrust at the high end of the accelerator throttling range. The accelerator and screen grids are undergoing development for intended use as NASA s Evolutionary Xenon Thruster (NEXT) a spacecraft thruster that would have an input-power throttling range of 1.2 to 6.9 kW. The improved accelerator and screen grids could also be incorporated into ion accelerators used in such industrial processes as ion implantation and ion milling. NEXT is a successor to the NASA Solar Electric Propulsion Technology Application Readiness (NSTAR) thruster - a state-of-the-art ion thruster characterized by, among other things, a beam-extraction diameter of 28 cm, a span-to-gap ratio (defined as this diameter divided by the distance between the grids) of about 430, and a rated peak input power of 2.3 kW. To enable the NEXT thruster to operate at the required higher peak power, the beam-extraction diameter was increased to 40 cm almost doubling the beam-extraction area over that of NSTAR (see figure). The span-to-gap ratio was increased to 600 to enable throttling to the low end of the required input-power range. The geometry of the apertures in the grids was selected on the basis of experience in the use of grids of similar geometry in the NSTAR thruster. Characteristics of the aperture geometry include a high open-area fraction in the screen grid to reduce discharge losses and a low open-area fraction in the accelerator grid to reduce losses of electrically neutral gas atoms or molecules. The NEXT accelerator grid was made thicker than that of the NSTAR to make more material available for erosion, thereby increasing the service life and, hence, the total impulse. The NEXT grids are made of molybdenum, which was chosen because its combination of high strength and low thermal expansion helps to minimize thermally and inertially induced deflections of the grids. A secondary reason for choosing molybdenum is the availability of a large database for this material. To keep development costs low, the NEXT grids have been fabricated by the same techniques used to fabricate the NSTAR grids. In tests, the NEXT ion optics have been found to outperform the NSTAR ion optics, as expected.

Soulas, George C.↗
NASA NTRS1997

Engineering design aspects of the heat-pipe power system

The Heat-pipe Power System (HPS) is a near-term, low-cost space power system designed at Los Alamos that can provide up to 1,000 kWt for many space nuclear applications. The design of the reactor is simple, modular, and adaptable. The basic design allows for the use of a variety of power conversion systems and reactor materials (including the fuel, clad, and heat pipes). This paper describes a project that was undertaken to develop a database supporting many engineering aspects of the HPS design. The specific tasks discussed in this paper are: the development of an HPS materials database, the creation of finite element models that will allow a wide variety of investigations, and the verification of past calculations.

SPACECRAFT POWER SUPPLIES↗
NASA NTRS2003

Thermal Response of Cooled Silicon Nitride Plate Due to Thermal Conductivity Effects Analyzed

Lightweight, strong, tough high-temperature materials are required to complement efficiency improvements for next-generation gas turbine engines that can operate with minimum cooling. Because of their low density, high-temperature strength, and high thermal conductivity, ceramics are being investigated as materials to replace the nickelbase superalloys that are currently used for engine hot-section components. Ceramic structures can withstand higher operating temperatures and a harsh combustion environment. In addition, their low densities relative to metals help reduce component mass (ref. 1). To complement the effectiveness of the ceramics and their applicability for turbine engine applications, a parametric study using the finite element method is being carried out. The NASA Glenn Research Center remains very active in conducting and supporting a variety of research activities related to ceramic matrix composites through both experimental and analytical efforts (ref. 1). The objectives of this work are to develop manufacturing technology, develop a thermal and environmental barrier coating (TBC/EBC), develop an analytical modeling capability to predict thermomechanical stresses, and perform a minimal burner rig test on silicon nitride (Si3N4) and SiC/SiC turbine nozzle vanes under simulated engine conditions. Moreover, we intend to generate a detailed database of the material s property characteristics and their effects on structural response. We expect to offer a wide range of data since the modeling will account for other variables, such as cooling channel geometry and spacing. Comprehensive analyses have begun on a plate specimen with Si3N4 cooling holes.

Baaklini, George Y.↗
NASA NTRS2017

Characterizing Non-Resolved Debris Through Spectral and Photometric Ground-Based Telescopic Data: What Can Laboratory Ground-truth Data Do for You?

NASA's ODPO has recently collected data of unresolved objects at GEO with the 3.8m UKIRT infrared telescope on Mauna Kea and the 1.3m MCAT visible telescope on Ascension Island. Analyses of SWIR data of rocket bodies and HS-376 solar-panel covered buses demonstrate the uniqueness of spectral signatures. Data of 3 classes of rocket bodies show similarities amongst a given class, but distinct differences from one class to another, suggesting that infrared reflectance spectra could effectively be used toward characterizing and constraining potential parent bodies of uncorrelated targets (UCTs). The Optical Measurements Center (OMC) at NASA JSC is designed to collect photometric signatures in the laboratory that can be used for comparison with telescopic data. NASA also has a spectral database of spacecraft materials for use with spectral unmixing models. Spectral unmixing of the HS-376 bus data demonstrates how absorption features and slopes can be used to constrain material characteristics of debris. Broadband photometry likewise can be compared with MCAT data of non-resolved debris images. Similar studies have been applied to IDCSP satellites to demonstrate how color-color photometry can be compared with lab data to constrain bulk materials signatures of spacecraft and debris.

Lederer, Susan↗
NASA NTRS2017

Battery Data MI Importer Template Quick Start Guide

In order to ensure the persistent availability and reliability of test data generated over the course of the project, the M-SHELLS Project has decided to store acquired test data, as well as associated pedigree information, in the Granta Materials Intelligence (MI) database. To facilitate that effort, an importer template and associated graphical user interface (GUI) software have been developed, with this guide providing the operating instructions for their use. The template and automation software GUI are contained in the BatteryDataImporter.xlsm Excel workbook, and are to be used to import M-SHELLS summary, or pedigree, data and the associated raw test data results into an importer template-based file, formatted in such a way as to be ready for immediate upload to the Test Data: Battery Performance table of the Granta MI database. The provided GUI enables the user to select the appropriate summary data file(s), with each file containing the required information to identify any associated raw test data file(s) to be processed. In addition to describing the setup and operation of the importer template and GUI software, this guide also provides instructions for uploading processed data to the database and for viewing the data following upload.

Levinson, Laurie H.↗
NASA NTRS2017

Mass and Reliability Source (MaRS) Database

The Mass and Reliability Source (MaRS) Database consolidates components mass and reliability data for all Oribital Replacement Units (ORU) on the International Space Station (ISS) into a single database. It was created to help engineers develop a parametric model that relates hardware mass and reliability. MaRS supplies relevant failure data at the lowest possible component level while providing support for risk, reliability, and logistics analysis. Random-failure data is usually linked to the ORU assembly. MaRS uses this data to identify and display the lowest possible component failure level. As seen in Figure 1, the failure point is identified to the lowest level: Component 2.1. This is useful for efficient planning of spare supplies, supporting long duration crewed missions, allowing quicker trade studies, and streamlining diagnostic processes. MaRS is composed of information from various databases: MADS (operating hours), VMDB (indentured part lists), and ISS PART (failure data). This information is organized in Microsoft Excel and accessed through a program made in Microsoft Access (Figure 2). The focus of the Fall 2017 internship tour was to identify the components that were the root cause of failure from the given random-failure data, develop a taxonomy for the database, and attach material headings to the component list. Secondary objectives included verifying the integrity of the data in MaRS, eliminating any part discrepancies, and generating documentation for future reference. Due to the nature of the random-failure data, data mining had to be done manually without the assistance of an automated program to ensure positive identification.

Valdenegro, Wladimir↗
NASA NTRS2018

Recertification and Equivalency Test Results for IM7/8552-1 Following Extended Freezer Storage

In 2015, the Composites for Exploration Upper Stage (CEUS) Project established an equivalency test program to reduce the scope of laminate coupon tests within the project. The material selected was IM7/8552-1, a variant of the IM7/8552 prepreg used to populate a National Center for Advanced Materials Performance (NCAMP) database. The CEUS successor program, Composites Technology for Exploration (CTE), kicked off in 2017 with the remaining CEUS prepreg planned for use. The IM7/8552-1 prepreg was recertified through an in-house defined set of pass/fail criteria then evaluated for equivalency to the NCAMP database. Over the course of recertification and equivalency panel fabrication, the time of freezer storage ranged from 19 - 22 months. Panels for recertification and equivalency tests were fiber placed at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) and NASA Langley Research Center (LARC).

carbon fiber/epoxy↗
NASA NTRS2018

Re-Certification and Equivalency Test Results for IM7/8552-1 Following Extended Freezer Storage

In 2015, the Composites for Exploration Upper Stage (CEUS) Project established an equivalency test program to reduce the scope of laminate coupon tests within the project. The material selected was IM7/8552-1, a variant of the IM7/8552 prepreg used to populate a National Center for Advanced Materials Performance (NCAMP) database. The CEUS successor program, Composites Technology for Exploration (CTE), kicked off in 2017 with the remaining CEUS prepreg planned for use. The IM7/8552-1 prepreg was recertified through an in-house defined set of pass/fail criteria then evaluated for equivalency to the NCAMP database. Over the course of recertification and equivalency panel fabrication, the time of freezer storage ranged from 19-23 months. Panels for recertification and equivalency tests were fiber placed at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) and NASA Langley Research Center (LARC).

equivalency↗
NASA NTRS2023

Manufacturing and Mechanical Testing of TC1225/LM-PAEK and TC1200/PEEK Thermoplastic Composite Panels

Development of thermoplastic composites (TPCs) for aerospace structures is experiencing renewed enthusiasm attributed to the availability of rapid manufacturing technology, ease of joining through fusion welding processes, and the successful utilization of the material in flight critical structures. Semicrystalline thermoplastics such as polyether ether ketone (PEEK), polyether ketone ketone (PEKK), and polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) have been successfully demonstrated as thermoplastic skins, keel beams, and angle brackets for commercial aircraft. Composite specimens were fabricated from the Toray TC1225 and TC1200 unidirectional prepreg systems and tested to gain confidence with NASA in-house TPC processing as part of the Thermoplastics Development for Exploration Application (TDEA) project. TC1225 is a relatively new material system that uses T700GC fibers and low-melt polyaryl ether ketone (LM-PAEK) resin. TC1200 is the latest version of a material system that has been available for several decades with AS4 fibers and PEEK resin. Results for ultrasonic inspection, optical microscopy, acid digestion, and differential scanning calorimetry establish the quality of the panels. Mechanical test data for unnotched and notched laminate tension and compression as well as compression after impact provide data for equivalency assessment and support material selection in TDEA. Satisfactory equivalence of the TC1225 results and the National Center for Advanced Materials Performance (NCAMP) database was found. The results indicate high-quality manufacturing was achieved, and the resulting mechanical test data are in agreement with that in the literature.

Thermoplastic Composites↗
NASA NTRS2004

Materials Characterization at Utah State University: Facilities and Knowledge-base of Electronic Properties of Materials Applicable to Spacecraft Charging

In an effort to improve the reliability and versatility of spacecraft charging models designed to assist spacecraft designers in accommodating and mitigating the harmful effects of charging on spacecraft, the NASA Space Environments and Effects (SEE) Program has funded development of facilities at Utah State University for the measurement of the electronic properties of both conducting and insulating spacecraft materials. We present here an overview of our instrumentation and capabilities, which are particularly well suited to study electron emission as related to spacecraft charging. These measurements include electron-induced secondary and backscattered yields, spectra, and angular resolved measurements as a function of incident energy, species and angle, plus investigations of ion-induced electron yields, photoelectron yields, sample charging and dielectric breakdown. Extensive surface science characterization capabilities are also available to fully characterize the samples in situ. Our measurements for a wide array of conducting and insulating spacecraft materials have been incorporated into the SEE Charge Collector Knowledge-base as a Database of Electronic Properties of Materials Applicable to Spacecraft Charging. This Database provides an extensive compilation of electronic properties, together with parameterization of these properties in a format that can be easily used with existing spacecraft charging engineering tools and with next generation plasma, charging, and radiation models. Tabulated properties in the Database include: electron-induced secondary electron yield, backscattered yield and emitted electron spectra; He, Ar and Xe ion-induced electron yields and emitted electron spectra; photoyield and solar emittance spectra; and materials characterization including reflectivity, dielectric constant, resistivity, arcing, optical microscopy images, scanning electron micrographs, scanning tunneling microscopy images, and Auger electron spectra. Further details of the instrumentation used for insulator measurements and representative measurements of insulating spacecraft materials are provided in other Spacecraft Charging Conference presentations. The NASA Space Environments and Effects Program, the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, the Boeing Corporation, NASA Graduate Research Fellowships, and the NASA Rocky Mountain Space Grant Consortium have provided support.

Dennison, J. R.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Establishment of computerized numerical databases on thermophysical and other properties of molten as well as solid materials and data evaluation and validation for generating recommended reliable reference data

The Center for Information and Numerical Data Analysis and Synthesis, (CINDAS), measures and maintains databases on thermophysical, thermoradiative, mechanical, optical, electronic, ablation, and physical properties of materials. Emphasis is on aerospace structural materials especially composites and on infrared detector/sensor materials. Within CINDAS, the Department of Defense sponsors at Purdue several centers: the High Temperature Material Information Analysis Center (HTMIAC), the Ceramics Information Analysis Center (CIAC) and the Metals Information Analysis Center (MIAC). The responsibilities of CINDAS are extremely broad encompassing basic and applied research, measurement of the properties of thin wires and thin foils as well as bulk materials, acquisition and search of world-wide literature, critical evaluation of data, generation of estimated values to fill data voids, investigation of constitutive, structural, processing, environmental, and rapid heating and loading effects, and dissemination of data. Liquids, gases, molten materials and solids are all considered. The responsibility of maintaining widely used databases includes data evaluation, analysis, correlation, and synthesis. Material property data recorded on the literature are often conflicting, diverging, and subject to large uncertainties. It is admittedly difficult to accurately measure materials properties. Systematic and random errors both enter. Some errors result from lack of characterization of the material itself (impurity effects). In some cases assumed boundary conditions corresponding to a theoretical model are not obtained in the experiments. Stray heat flows and losses must be accounted for. Some experimental methods are inappropriate and in other cases appropriate methods are carried out with poor technique. Conflicts in data may be resolved by curve fitting of the data to theoretical or empirical models or correlation in terms of various affecting parameters. Reasons (e.g. phase transitions) must be found for unusual dependence or any anomaly. Such critical evaluation involves knowledge of theory, experience in measurement, familiarity with metallurgy (microstructural behavior) and not inconsiderable judgment. An examination of typical data compiled and analyzed by CINDAS shows that the thermal conductivity of a material reported in the literature may vary by a factor of two of more; the range of reported values increases as temperature increases reflecting the difficulty of high temperature measurements. Often only estimates of melt behavior are available, despite the importance of melt properties in modeling, welding, or other solidification processes. There may be only a few measurements available for properties such as kinematic viscosity, even for widely used materials such as stainless steel. In the face of such a paucity of existing data and in a national environment where too few new data are being generated it is nonetheless the responsibility of CINDAS to select and disseminate recommended values of a wide variety of thermophysical properties.

Ho, C. Y.↗
NASA NTRS1997

Thermal Conductivity Database of Various Structural Carbon-Carbon Composite Materials

Advanced thermal protection materials envisioned for use on future hypersonic vehicles will likely be subjected to temperatures in excess of 1811 K (2800 F) and, therefore, will require the rapid conduction of heat away from the stagnation regions of wing leading edges, the nose cap area, and from engine inlet and exhaust areas. Carbon-carbon composite materials are candidates for use in advanced thermal protection systems. For design purposes, high temperature thermophysical property data are required, but a search of the literature found little thermal conductivity data for carbon-carbon materials above 1255 K (1800 F). Because a need was recognized for in-plane and through-the-thickness thermal conductivity data for carbon-carbon composite materials over a wide temperature range, Langley Research Center (LaRC) embarked on an effort to compile a consistent set of thermal conductivity values from room temperature to 1922 K (3000 F) for carbon-carbon composite materials on hand at LaRC for which the precursor materials and thermal processing history were known. This report documents the thermal conductivity data generated for these materials. In-plane thermal conductivity values range from 10 to 233 W/m-K, whereas through-the-thickness values range from 2 to 21 W/m-K.

Ohlhorst, Craig W.↗
NASA NTRS2003

Software for Managing Inventory of Flight Hardware

The Flight Hardware Support Request System (FHSRS) is a computer program that relieves engineers at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) of most of the non-engineering administrative burden of managing an inventory of flight hardware. The FHSRS can also be adapted to perform similar functions for other organizations. The FHSRS affords a combination of capabilities, including those formerly provided by three separate programs in purchasing, inventorying, and inspecting hardware. The FHSRS provides a Web-based interface with a server computer that supports a relational database of inventory; electronic routing of requests and approvals; and electronic documentation from initial request through implementation of quality criteria, acquisition, receipt, inspection, storage, and final issue of flight materials and components. The database lists both hardware acquired for current projects and residual hardware from previous projects. The increased visibility of residual flight components provided by the FHSRS has dramatically improved the re-utilization of materials in lieu of new procurements, resulting in a cost savings of over $1.7 million. The FHSRS includes subprograms for manipulating the data in the database, informing of the status of a request or an item of hardware, and searching the database on any physical or other technical characteristic of a component or material. The software structure forces normalization of the data to facilitate inquiries and searches for which users have entered mixed or inconsistent values.

Salisbury, John↗
NASA NTRS2010

Asbestos Exposure Assessment Database

Exposure to particular hazardous materials in a work environment is dangerous to the employees who work directly with or around the materials as well as those who come in contact with them indirectly. In order to maintain a national standard for safe working environments and protect worker health, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set forth numerous precautionary regulations. NASA has been proactive in adhering to these regulations by implementing standards which are often stricter than regulation limits and administering frequent health risk assessments. The primary objective of this project is to create the infrastructure for an Asbestos Exposure Assessment Database specific to NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC) which will compile all of the exposure assessment data into a well-organized, navigable format. The data includes Sample Types, Samples Durations, Crafts of those from whom samples were collected, Job Performance Requirements (JPR) numbers, Phased Contrast Microscopy (PCM) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) results and qualifiers, Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), and names of industrial hygienists who performed the monitoring. This database will allow NASA to provide OSHA with specific information demonstrating that JSC s work procedures are protective enough to minimize the risk of future disease from the exposures. The data has been collected by the NASA contractors Computer Sciences Corporation (CSC) and Wyle Laboratories. The personal exposure samples were collected from devices worn by laborers working at JSC and by building occupants located in asbestos-containing buildings.

Arcot, Divya K.↗
NASA NTRS2026

Polymer Composite Material Testing for a Cryotank Application

Composite cryotanks will play a key role in enabling the next generation of efficient aircraft. Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites have the benefits of reduced weight and potentially higher structural strength compared to traditional metallic fuel tanks. A material screening study was conducted to inform material selection for liquid hydrogen (LH2) fuel storage. Three composite materials were considered because of their aerospace grade toughness, strength, and existing data to compare against. These materials were a thermoplastic low-melt polyaryletherketone (LM-PAEK)/carbon fiber (CF), thermoset/CF, and hybrid thermoset/thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) veil/CF composite. Mechanical screening tests included tension, compression, in-plane shear (IPS), and tensile-tensile fatigue (TTF). Each material was tested at both a baseline (no liquid nitrogen/LN2 cycling) and 100 LN2-cycled conditions to determine the knockdown factor, if any, of each material when exposed to environmental loading effects in a cryotank. Results show minimal effects of the LN2-cycling compared against baseline values. The three materials behaved similarly in tension; however, the thermoplastic/CF had the highest IPS toughness. The hybrid thermoset/TPU/CF composite had the lowest IPS strength, compressive strength, and toughness. LN2-cycling had minimal effects on tensile-tensile fatigue performance of the thermoplastic/CF material. Mechanical data was captured to guide material down selection for future commercially viable hydrogen aircraft design. In its current state, there does not exist a consolidated, publicly available database for CFRP composite material performance data at cryogenic temperatures. The next step in this work is to test the thermoplastic and thermoset CFRP composites, as well as the neat resins, at LH2 relevant temperature (20 K) to capture this crucial material property data. These results are essential to inform cryotank design and modeling efforts. The process to start this next round of testing has begun. Planned mechanical tests include toughness (single-edge notched beam), tension (unidirectional and quasi-isotropic), thermal expansion, and thermal conductivity. Some tests will also be conducted at an intermediate temperature of 111 K relevant to liquid natural gas (LNG), another attractive fuel choice. The ultimate goal is to manufacture a sub-scale cryotank part that can pass relevant burst, fatigue, permeation, and thermal cycling tests. This work is a part of NASA’s Commercially viable Hydrogen Aircraft for Robust Growth in Efficiency (CHARGE) Project under the larger NASA Subsonic Vehicle Technologies and Tools (SVTT) Project.

composites↗
NASA NTRS2003

Micromechanics-Based Computational Simulation of Ceramic Matrix Composites

Advanced high-temperature Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) hold an enormous potential for use in aerospace propulsion system components and certain land-based applications. However, being relatively new materials, a reliable design properties database of sufficient fidelity does not yet exist. To characterize these materials solely by testing is cost and time prohibitive. Computational simulation then becomes very useful to limit the experimental effort and reduce the design cycle time, Authors have been involved for over a decade in developing micromechanics- based computational simulation techniques (computer codes) to simulate all aspects of CMC behavior including quantification of scatter that these materials exhibit. A brief summary/capability of these computer codes with typical examples along with their use in design/analysis of certain structural components is the subject matter of this presentation.

Murthy, Pappu L. N.↗
NASA NTRS1995

Risks and reliability of manufacturing processes as related to composite materials for spacecraft structures

Fabricating primary aircraft and spacecraft structures using advanced composite materials entail both benefits and risks. The benefits come from much improved strength-to-weight ratios and stiffness-to-weight ratios, potential for less part count, ability to tailor properties, chemical and solvent resistance, and superior thermal properties. On the other hand, the risks involved include high material costs, lack of processing experience, expensive labor, poor reproducibility, high toxicity for some composites, and a variety of space induced risks. The purpose of this project is to generate a manufacturing database for a selected number of materials with potential for space applications, and to rely on this database to develop quantitative approaches to screen candidate materials and processes for space applications on the basis of their manufacturing risks including costs. So far, the following materials have been included in the database: epoxies, polycyanates, bismalemides, PMR-15, polyphenylene sulfides, polyetherimides, polyetheretherketone, and aluminum lithium. The first four materials are thermoset composites; the next three are thermoplastic composites, and the last one is is a metal. The emphasis of this database is on factors affecting manufacturing such as cost of raw material, handling aspects which include working life and shelf life of resins, process temperature, chemical/solvent resistance, moisture resistance, damage tolerance, toxicity, outgassing, thermal cycling, and void content, nature or type of process, associate tooling, and in-process quality assurance. Based on industry experience and published literature, a relative ranking was established for each of the factors affecting manufacturing as listed above. Potential applications of this database include the determination of a delta cost factor for specific structures with a given process plan and a general methodology to screen materials and processes for incorporation into the current conceptual design optimization of future spacecrafts as being coordinated by the Vehicle Analysis Branch where this research is being conducted.

Bao, Han P.↗