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DOE OSTI2024

Large Electrically and Chemically Tunable Rashba–Dresselhaus Effects in Ferroelectric CsGeX 3 (X = Cl, Br, I) Perovskites

Rashba–Dresselhaus effects, which originate from spin–orbit coupling and allow for spin manipulations, are actively explored in materials, following the pursuit of spintronics and quantum computing. However, materials that possess practically significant Rashba–Dresselhaus effects often contain toxic elements and offer little opportunity for the tunability of the effects. We used first-principles simulations to reveal that the recently discovered halide ferroelectrics in the CsGeX 3 (X = Cl, Br, I) family possess large and tunable Rashba-Dresselhaus effects. In particular, they give origin to the spin splitting of up to 171 meV in the valence band of CsGeI 3 . The value is chemically tunable and can decrease by 25% and 70% for CsGeBr 3 and CsGeCl 3 , respectively. Such chemical tunability could result in the engineering of desired values through a solid solution technique. Application of an electric field was found to result in structural changes that could decrease and increase spin splitting, leading to electrical tunability of the effect. In the vicinity of conduction and valence band extrema, the spin textures are mostly of the Rashba type, which is promising for spin-to-charge conversion applications. The spin directions are coupled with the polarization direction, leading to Rashba-ferroelectricity cofunctionality. Furthermore, our work identifies lead-free perovskite halides as excellent candidates for spin-based applications and is likely to stimulate further research in this direction.

Electric fields↗

DOE OSTI2025

Chemical classification program synthesis using generative artificial intelligence

Accurately classifying chemical structures is essential for cheminformatics and bioinformatics, including tasks such as identifying bioactive compounds of interest, screening molecules for toxicity to humans, finding non-organic compounds with desirable material properties, or organizing large chemical libraries for drug discovery or environmental monitoring. However, manual classification is labor-intensive and difficult to scale to large chemical databases. Existing automated approaches either rely on manually constructed classification rules, or are deep learning methods that lack explainability. This work presents an approach that uses generative artificial intelligence to automatically write chemical classifier programs for classes in the Chemical Entities of Biological Interest (ChEBI) database. These programs can be used for efficient deterministic run-time classification of SMILES structures, with natural language explanations. The programs themselves constitute an explainable computable ontological model of chemical class nomenclature, which we call the ChEBI Chemical Class Program Ontology (C3PO). We validated our approach against the ChEBI database, and compared our results against deep learning models and a naive SMARTS pattern based classifier. C3PO outperforms the naive classifier, but does not reach the performance of state of the art deep learning methods. However, C3PO has a number of strengths that complement deep learning methods, including explainability and reduced data dependence. C3PO can be used alongside deep learning classifiers to provide an explanation of the classification, where both methods agree. The programs can be used as part of the ontology development process, and iteratively refined by expert human curators.

Artificial Intelligence↗

DOE OSTI2023

Protection against Chemical Warfare Agents and Biological Threats Using Metal–Organic Frameworks as Active Layers

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic outbreak and the unfortunate misuse of toxic chemical warfare agents (CWAs) highlight the importance of developing functional materials to protect against these chemical and pathogen threats. Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), which comprise a tunable class of crystalline porous materials built from inorganic nodes and organic linkers, have emerged as a class of heterogeneous catalysts capable of rapid detoxification of multiple classes of these harmful chemical or biological hazards. In particular, zirconium-based MOFs (Zr-MOFs) feature Lewis acidic nodes that serve as active sites for a wide range of catalytic reactions, including the hydrolysis of organophosphorus nerve agents within seconds in basic aqueous solutions. In addition, postsynthetic modification of Zr-MOFs enables the release of active species capable of reacting with and deactivating harmful pathogens. Despite this impressive performance, utilizing Zr- MOFs in powder form is not practical for application in masks or protective uniforms. To address this challenge, our team sought to develop MOF/fiber composite systems that could be adapted for use under realistic operating conditions to protect civilians, military personnel, and first responders from harmful pathogens and chemical warfare agents. Over the last several years, our group has designed and fabricated reactive and biocidal MOF/fiber composites that effectively capture and deactivate these toxic species. In this Account, we describe the evolution of these porous and reactive MOF/fiber composites and focus on key design challenges and considerations. First, we devised a scalable method for the integration of Zr-MOFs onto textile substrates using aqueous precursor solutions and without using pretreated textiles, highlighting the potential scalability of this method. Moving beyond standard textiles, we also developed a microbial synthesis strategy to prepare hierarchically porous MOF/bacterial cellulose nanofiber composite sponges that can both capture and detoxify nerve agents when exposed to contaminated gas flows. The mass loading of the MOF in the nanofibrous composite sponge is up to 90%, affording higher work capacities compared to those of textile-fiber-based composites with relatively lower MOF loadings. Next, we demonstrated that heterogeneous polymeric bases are suitable replacements for volatile liquid bases typically used in solution-phase reactions, and we showed that these composite systems are capable of effectively hydrolyzing nerve agents in the solid state by using only water that is present as humidity. Moreover, incorporating a reactive dye precursor into the composite affords a dual function sensing and detoxifying material that changes color from white to orange upon reaction with the byproduct following nerve agent hydrolysis, demonstrating the versatility of this platform for use in decontamination applications. We then created chlorine-loaded MOF/fiber composites that act as biocidal and reactive textiles that are capable of not only detoxifying sulfur-mustard-based chemical warfare agents and simulants but also deactivating both bacteria and the SARS-CoV-2 virus within minutes of exposure. Lastly, we synthesized a mixed-metal Ti/Zr-MOF coating on cotton fibers to afford a photoactive biocidal cloth that shows fast and broad-spectrum biocidal performance against viruses and Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria under visible light irradiation. Given the tunable, multifunctional nature of these MOF/fiber composites, we believe that this Account will offer new insights for the rational design and preparation of functional MOF/fiber composites and pave the way toward the development of next-generation reactive and protective textiles.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2023

A laboratory-scale process for producing dilithium beryllium tetrafluoride (FLiBe) with dissolved uranium tetrafluoride

Flibe Energy, Incorporated (FEI)'s conceptual Lithium Fluoride Thorium Reactor (LFTR) incorporates a chemical processing facility aimed at recovering uranium and other valuable volatile radionuclides while managing harmful radionuclides from the used fuel. The fuel utilized in this reactor is a combination of dilithium beryllium tetrafluoride (Li 2 BeF 4 or FLiBe) and uranium tetrafluoride (UF 4 ), (FLiBe/U). FEI's plan involves extracting the uranium and other valuable volatile fluoride-forming radionuclides using nitrogen trifluoride (NF 3 ). To facilitate laboratory-scale testing of uranium extraction using NF 3 and address the toxicity and physical hazards associated with beryllium and beryllium fluoride (BeF 2 ), we used a two-step process to prepare the simulated fuel salt. The first step entailed thermally decomposing ammonium beryllium tetrafluoride [(NH 4 ) 2 BeF 4 ] (ABeF) through a nominal 3-step process, combined with appropriate amounts of lithium fluoride (LiF) and UF 4 , resulting in the formation of beryllium fluoride (BeF 2 ). In the second step, the mixture was repeatedly melted and frozen at the melting point of FLiBe to prepare the eutectic FLiBe with dissolved UF 4 . Although the concept appears straightforward, the production of FLiBe/U involved various challenges. These challenges included transporting the gaseous decomposition products of ABeF, hydrogen fluoride (HF) and ammonia (NH 3 ), while preventing the formation of ammonium fluoride (NH 4 F). Additionally, it was necessary to control the reaction between the higher-than-anticipated water content in the commercial ABeF with NH 3 , HF, and the condensed NH 4 F, protect UF 4 from forming an unknown black compound, select suitable structural materials to mitigate fluoride corrosion, address the risks associated with beryllium toxicity through equipment design and operational protocols, and monitor process conditions. This article provides an account of the thermal decomposition chemistry observed in the commercial ABeF, describes the FLiBe/U production apparatus, describes the experiences and process refinements developed to prepare FLiBe/U, and presents our characterizations of prepared FLiBe/U.

Ammonium beryllium fluoride thermal decomposition↗

DOE OSTI2021

Functionalized Cellular Magmatics

We are pioneering the development of fundamental and applied research related to engineered cellular magmatics (ECM) technology. Over the course of our first year, we developed the methodology and measured the effects of various additives on ECM properties. We demonstrated the ability to control the phase and morphology of post-process secondary minerals on ECMs based on starting conditions and compositions. Both achievements are critical to advancing the use of ECMs for applications such as water filtration and runoff remediation. We established the ability to grow various microbiologic consortia on ECM surfaces as well as a process that allows industrial scaling of the technology for rapid field deployment in applications such as the cleanup of fossil fuel contamination. Furthermore, this biotechnology also has potential application in the nascent fields of biomining of precious metals and bioremediation of toxic heavy metals.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2020

Green chemistry design in polymers derived from lignin: review and perspective

The use of lignin for material and chemical applications has gained interest in recent times due to the environmental focus on using biomass for renewable materials as well as the motivation to valorize lignin as part of an integrated biorefinery. While a wealth of publications can be found for lignin-derived materials, and several reviews can be found on the topic, there are no reviews that outline and critically assess the sustainability of these protocols based on the criterion of the 12 Principles of Green Chemistry. This review assesses the literature for lignin- derived polymers over the past 20 years and highlights attempts to use biobased accompanying reagents, green solvents or solvent-less protocols, reports that replace traditionally toxic precursors (e.g. diisocyanates for polyurethanes), use mild conditions, valorize additional waste streams and prepare materials particularly biodegradable or recyclable. Here, the following work is a comprehensive and critical assessment of the green and sustainable nature of the state-of-the art of lignin-derived polymers (polyurethane, polyester, epoxy, phenolic resin, and others) utilizing actual biomass in the synthetic protocol. Each section of this review highlights and assesses published protocols that use a particularly green approach in one or more steps of the synthetic sequence. While many reports still contain traditional petroleum-derived and toxic methods along with more sustainable methods, the outline of all such green methods is able to create a landscape amidst lignin-derived polymer synthesis that points the way toward safer and more environmentally friendly materials.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2020

Sustainable recycling of cathode scraps via Cyrene-based separation

Separation of cathode materials from the current collector remains a challenging task for the recycling of both spent lithium-ion batteries and cathode scraps. Dissolving the organic binder polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) with an organic solvent to recover both cathode materials and Al foils is an efficient and promising method. However, the use of toxic solvents limits their practical application in recycling large amounts of cathode scraps generated during the manufacturing process. Cyrene, a bioderived green solvent, is proposed here for a solvent-based separation process. This study investigated a closed-loop recovery process to reclaim cathode materials, Al foils, and PVDF binder from cathode scraps. Furthermore, the reuse of the Cyrene solvent led to a circular recycling process. Additionally, the Cyrene-based separation process embraces a sustainable electrode recovery and reuse platform and paves the way for battery recycling.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2023

Mechanochemical Synthesis of Sustainable Ternary and Quaternary Nanostructured Cu2SnS3, Cu2ZnSnS4, and Cu2ZnSnSe4 Chalcogenides for Thermoelectric Applications

Copper-based chalcogenides have emerged as promising thermoelectric materials due to their high thermoelectric performance, tunable transport properties, earth abundance and low toxicity. We have presented an overview of experimental results and first-principal calculations investigating the thermoelectric properties of various polymorphs of Cu2SnS3 (CTS), Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS), and Cu2ZnSnSe4 (CZTSe) synthesized by high-energy reactive mechanical alloying (ball milling). Of particular interest are the disordered polymorphs of these materials, which exhibit phonon-glass–electron-crystal behavior—a decoupling of electron and phonon transport properties. The interplay of cationic disorder and nanostructuring leads to ultra-low thermal conductivities while enhancing electronic transport. These beneficial transport properties are the consequence of a plethora of features, including trap states, anharmonicity, rattling, and conductive surface states, both topologically trivial and non-trivial. Based on experimental results and computational methods, this report aims to elucidate the details of the electronic and lattice transport properties, thereby confirming that the higher thermoelectric (TE) performance of disordered polymorphs is essentially due to their complex crystallographic structures. In addition, we have presented synchrotron X-ray diffraction (SR-XRD) measurements and ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) simulations of the root-mean-square displacement (RMSD) in these materials, confirming anharmonicity and bond inhomogeneity for disordered polymorphs.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2026

Solar PV Energy: Myths and Realities (Spanish Translation)

Solar energy is growing at record rates, but its rapid expansion brings little-discussed challenges. I will present the global deployment goals and how these translate into future amounts of waste and critical material needs. I will also address common myths about end of life, toxicity, and the real impacts of technological changes, and why research in reliability and field testing is essential to ensure a resilient, sustainable network prepared for the next decades of photovoltaic growth.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2023

Assessment of the Biological Impact of Engineered Nanomaterials Using Mass Spectrometry-based MultiOmics Approaches

The widespread use of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) has expanded further than our understanding of their toxicity, prompting research into the biological responses against exposure to such materials. Genomics and transcriptomics have been extensively used to evaluate the biological effects of exposure to various ENMs. By determining gene activities, these studies provided valuable information to infer how cells respond to the toxicological effects of many ENMs. The application of mass spectrometry (MS)-based omics tools, such as proteomics, lipidomics, and metabolomics, offer post-genomic perspectives of what cellular processes are altered. Individually, these technologies have revealed the proteome, lipidome, and metabolome landscape upon exposure to ENMs. Together, these approaches demonstrate the ENM-induced adaptation in a broad range of cellular processes at multiple levels and the complexity of ENM-cell interactions. As a result, integrating multiple layers of MS-based omics data is trending to complement genomics data. In this review chapter, we discuss the applications of these tools for a comprehensive systems-level characterization of the biological responses induced by engineered nanomaterials.

Engineered nanomaterials, Proteomics, Metabolomics↗

DOE OSTI2021

NO 2 Interactions with MoO 3 and CuO at Atmospherically Relevant Pressures

NO x concentrations in some geographic regions are harmful to human health. Gas filters to trap NO x and other toxic chemicals contain metal oxides, including MoO 3 and CuO. These materials are also being investigated for NO x gas sensors. In a step to understand the fundamental adsorption mechanism in sensors and the effect on binding site availability in gas filters, ambient-pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (APXPS) was used to study the interaction of NO 2 with polycrystalline MoO 3 and CuO surfaces under pressures up to 0.01 Torr (14 parts per million volume (ppmv)). Density functional theory-based computational modeling was performed to reveal the mechanisms of NO 2 interactions with the MoO 3 (010) and CuO(111) surfaces to aid interpretation of the experimental results. With pressure dependence, NO 2 interacts with reduced Mo 5+ atoms generated by oxygen vacancies and abstracts hydrogen atoms from hydroxyl groups on MoO 3 without accumulating N-containing species on the surface; vacancy-induced electronic states in the band gap are also removed, hinting toward an increase in the resistivity of the material. N-containing species begin accumulating on the CuO surface at atmospherically relevant pressures of 140 ppbv. NO 2 only decomposes at oxygen vacancy sites of CuO. The nitrogen species leave the CuO surface upon evacuation, highlighting the importance of in situ surface characterization when studying gas sensing and adsorption mechanisms. Finally, these results imply that NO 2 removes hydroxyl and O vac binding sties on these materials when used in gas filtration and sensing applications. Furthermore, the results show the key role of O vac sites in the gas sensing mechanism of MoO 3 and highlight the potential of APXPS for further studies of gas sensors.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2025

Inkless, dry printing nanographene via in-Situ Coordinated laser ablation and sintering processes

Printing carbon, such as graphene and other carbon structures, for flexible and printed electronics currently relies on either ink-based printing, laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT), or laser-induced graphitization (LIG) to convert carbon-rich precursor materials, such as polymers, to graphene-like carbon structures. Liquid inks contain toxic solvents, surfactants, and stabilizing additives that degrade electrical conductivity and require high-temperature post-processing. On the other hand, LIG is limited by the substrate. Here, this study introduces an additive manufacturing method for dry-printing carbon nanomaterials, ranging from amorphous carbon to crystalline graphene-like structures, on various substrates. The system utilizes laser ablation of a solid graphite target to create pure carbon nanoparticles in situ and on demand. An inert gas carries the nanoparticles onto the substrate, where they can be deposited either as amorphous structures or laser-sintered in real time to form various graphitic structures. The study of laser processing parameters, specifically fluence and pulse repetition frequency, revealed three unique regimes of nanostructure evolution that influence the morphological and electrical properties of these printed structures. Raman spectroscopy confirmed graphitization with a resistivity slightly higher than that of the bulk graphite target. The conductivity/resistivity could be tuned as a function of sintering laser power. Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) revealed that turbostratic nanographene formed with an interlayer spacing of 0.40 nm. Despite ink-based printing methods, such as screen printing, inkjet printing (IJP), and aerosol jet printing (AJP), this eco-friendly and green manufacturing technique could eliminate toxic chemicals, reduce environmental impact, and enable single-step fabrication of carbon-based devices for applications in wearable sensors, energy storage, flexible electronics, and Internet of Things (IoT) devices.

Additive nanomanufacturing↗

DOE OSTI2021

Highly efficient, rapid, and concurrent removal of toxic heavy metals by the novel 2D hybrid LDH–[Sn 2 S 6 ]

According to a United Nations report, by 2050 nearly six billion people worldwide will suffer from clean water scarcity. This is mostly because of the exponential proliferation of world population, urbanization, industrialization, and water pollution. Heavy metals are common water pollutants that can pose grave public health consequences. Existing water purification systems are lack of materials that have the potential for quick, simultaneous, efficient, and cost-efficient removal of numerous toxic metals from wastewater. Here, in this work, we report the design and synthesis of an economically viable Layered Double Hydroxides - Stannic Sulfide, LDH–[Sn 2 S 6 ] that exhibits a rapid, efficient, selective, and concurrent removal of Cu 2+ , Ag + , Cd 2+ , Pb 2+ , and Hg 2+ from parts per million (ppm) level to below 5 parts per billion (ppb) satisfying World Health Organization’s (WHO) safe drinking water limit. Moreover, LDH–[Sn 2 S 6 ] shows exceptionally high removal efficiencies of the above metals in acidic, neutral, and basic conditions. LDH–[Sn 2 S 6 ] also demonstrates enormous sorption capacities of 378, 978, 332, 579, and 666 mg/g for Cu 2+ , Ag + , Cd 2+ , Pb 2+ , and Hg 2+ , respectively. Remarkably, LDH–[Sn 2 S 6 ] displays extraordinary tolerance to the concentrations of Na + , Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Cl - , CO 3 2– , NO 3 – ,and SO 4 2- , and other constituents in tap and river water, it efficiently sequestrates Cu 2+ , Ag + , Cd 2+ , Pb 2+ , and Hg 2+ from ppm to safe drinking water levels in minutes. LDH–[Sn 2 S 6 ] shows pseudo-second-order sorption kinetics suggesting chemisorption adsorption mechanism involving M–S bonding. Altogether, the regeneratable LDH–[Sn 2 S 6 ] becomes an exceptional material that shows ultrahigh removal, unprecedented selectivity, rapid adsorption kinetics, wide pH stability, and a massive adsorption capacity. The integration of these features places LDH–[Sn 2 S 6 ] at the top of all adsorbents known to date and thus could be used for wastewater purifications.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2020

Electrochemical-assisted leaching of active materials from lithium ion batteries

The development of a circular economy for lithium-ion batteries (LIB) is essential to realize decarbonization and an electrified energy market. However, the current commercial operations that recover valuable constituents from LIBs require significant energy and reagents, which create toxic emissions and additional waste. We report an electrochemical-based method for leaching valuable metals from the active materials of mixed shredded LIBs. In this process, the use electrons, as green reagent, allows the use and regeneration of Fe 2+ in low concentrations as substitute for hydrogen peroxide as a reducing agent. Leaching in a membrane separated two-compartment electrochemical cell contributes to decrease the acid requirements as H+ can be generated electrochemically. With this design, leaching efficiencies over 96% for the active metals (Li, Co, Mn, and Ni) were demonstrated at pulp densities up to 240 g/L. Copper present in the active material is electrowon and recovered separately. Preliminary cost analyses demonstrate ca. 80% reduction in energy and chemical costs as compared to traditional hydrometallurgical routes.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2021

Challenges and Opportunities in Biological Funneling of Heterogeneous and Toxic Substrates Beyond Lignin

Significant developments in the understanding and manipulation of microbial metabolism have enabled the use of engineered biological systems toward a more sustainable energy and materials economy. While developments in metabolic engineering have primarily focused on the conversion of carbohydrates, substantial opportunities exist for using these same principles to extract value from more heterogeneous and toxic waste streams, such as those derived from lignin, biomass pyrolysis, or industrial waste. Funneling heterogeneous substrates from these streams toward valuable products, termed biological funneling, presents new challenges in balancing multiple catabolic pathways competing for shared cellular resources and engineering against perturbation from toxic substrates. Solutions to many of these challenges have been explored within the field of lignin valorization. This perspective aims to extend beyond lignin to highlight the challenges and discuss opportunities for use of biological systems to upgrade previously inaccessible waste streams.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2020

Heme peptide materials for anti-inflammatory regenerative nanobiomedicine

Heme released as a result of sustained injury leads to toxicity and triggers an inflammatory response and tissue damage. Heme oxygenase, an enzyme, recognizes, binds free heme and breaks it down as a part of the anti-inflammatory response. The present disclosure relates to a class of peptide amphiphiles that mimic the heme oxygenase function, and have shown that the designed peptide is able to bind and break down heme thus validating its potential as an anti-inflammatory agent that promotes tissue repair and useful in wound healing. The disclosed peptide sequence design provides control of amphiphile peptides' supramolecular structure and function. Applicants have shown that the incorporated heme molecule can transport CO, which suggests that the peptides can also transport NO, O2 and reactive oxygens, the molecules which are responsible for vasodilation, neurotransmission and cell death. Besides heme oxygenase function, it is believed that the designed peptides can recognize normal tissue adjacent to the damaged area and the peptide can self-assemble into fibers that promote healthy cell growth.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2023

Promoting reversibility of layered potassium cathode through interstitial doping

With the increasing needs for large-scale and low-cost energy storage devices, Mn-based layered oxide cathodes have achieved considerable researching interests for potassium-ion batteries owing to their high energy density, abundant resource and low toxicity. However, their developments are challenged by the absence of suitable cathode materials to tolerate large-sized K-ion insertion/extraction and the presence of Jahn-Teller distortion of Mn 3+ . To address this issue, here we present a strategy of embedding boron into interstitial tetrahedral sites to obtain a P3-K 0.5 Mn 0.8 Co 0.2 B 0.1 O 2 cathode. Strong B-O covalent bonds facilitate the construction of robust orthorhombic framework and alleviate the undesired elongation of Mn-O bonds, contributing to excellent electrochemical performance. In addition, boron ions are verified to promote the formation of a homogeneous cathode electrolyte interphase layer, improving interfacial stability and realizing highly reversible cycling in a wide voltage range (1.4-4.3 V). This strategy provides a new pathway towards the development of high-performance cathode materials for potassium-ion batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2020

Lead-free Cesium Europium Halide Perovskite Nanocrystals

Because of the toxicity of lead, searching for a lead-free halide perovskite semiconducting material with comparable optical and electronic properties is of great interest. Rare-earth-based halide perovskite represents a promising class of materials for this purpose. In this work, we demonstrate the solution-phase synthesis of single-crystalline CsEuCl 3 nanocrystals with a uniform size distribution centered around 15 nm. The CsEuCl 3 nanocrystals have photoluminescence emission centered at 435 nm, with a full width at half-maximum of 19 nm. Furthermore, CsEuCl 3 nanocrystals can be embedded in a polymer matrix that provides enhanced stability under continuous laser irradiation. Lead-free rare-earth cesium europium halide perovskite nanocrystals represent a promising candidate to replace lead halide perovskites.

77 NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY↗