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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

Emerging Technologies Review: Small Modular Reactors

Project 69643 Task 10 - The Air Force Civil Engineer Center has tasked Pacific Northwest National Laboratory with investigating emerging technologies to inform the Air Force’s understanding of the technology and to guide key considerations for implementing technologies that are resilient and alternative sources to the traditional methods used in the Air Force today. This report provides information about small modular reactor (SMR) technology; the components; and the technological, political, regulatory, economic, environmental, operational, and social considerations using existing, publicly available information from government, international, vendor, and Air Force sources.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Feasibility of full-core pin resolved CFD simulations of small modular reactor with momentum sources

Complex flow structure interactions and heat transfer processes take place in nuclear reactor cores. Given the extreme pressure/temperature and radioactive conditions inside the core, numerical simulations offer an attractive and sometimes more feasible approach to study the related flow and heat transfer phenomena in addition to the experiments. Under the Exascale Computing Project, the full-core simulation of a small modular reactor (SMR) has been pursued coupling Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and neutronics. A key aspect of the modeling of SMR fuel assemblies is the presence of spacer grids and the mixing promoted by mixing vanes or the equivalent. A reduced order methodology is adopted based on momentum sources to mimic the mixing of the vanes. The momentum sources have been carefully calibrated with detailed Large Eddy Simulations (LES) of spacer grids performed with Nek5000. Modeling the spacer grid and mixing vanes (SGMV) effect without body-fitted computational grid avoids the excessive costs in resolving the local geometric details, and thus supports the simulation to be scaled up to the full core. Besides the progress on momentum source modeling, this paper also features the first full-core pin resolved CFD simulation ever performed to the authors' knowledge. This represents a significant advancement in capability for the CFD of nuclear reactors, which will hopefully serve as an inspiration for further integrating high-fidelity numerical simulations in actual engineering designs.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Cyber-Physical Tabletop Exercise for Small Modular Reactor Facilities

U.S. nuclear power facilities face increasing challenges in meeting dynamic security requirements caused by evolving and expanding threats while keeping costs reasonable to make nuclear energy competitive. This evolving threat landscape includes adversaries having offensive cyber capabilities to attack information technology (IT) systems and operation technology (OT) systems. These adversaries may have the ability to attack the physical protection system (PPS) networks with potential consequential impacts that could degrade the effectiveness of the PPS. These cyber attacks may also be used to attack the safety and operational systems used to operate and ensure the safety of the reactor. Additionally, adversaries may gain access to unmanned aerial systems (UAS) that may be used to provide reconnaissance and surveillance of the facility, provide information to the adversaries, and be equipped with kinetic capabilities such as explosives or weapons that can be used to directly attack the facility. The Department of Energy’s Office of Nuclear Energy’s Advanced Reactor Safeguards and Security (ARSS) program funded Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) and Idaho National Laboratory (INL) to develop a cyber-physical tabletop exercise (TTX). This exercise was conducted on a hypothetical small modular reactor (SMR) facility, and only considered a potential adversary cyber attack on the PPS to a physical attack on the hypothetical facility to achieve a radiological release. This cyber-physical TTX is meant to provide lessons learned to integrate the cyber security system design and the physical protection system (PPS) design to decrease design, operation, and maintenance costs as well as increase effectiveness for defending against design basis threat attacks at the facility. This TTX will also provide a framework and method for SMR and microreactor vendors to conduct their own cyber-physical TTX and gain impactful insights to improving the cyber and physical protection system design for their SMR or microreactor facility design.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2017

Current Capabilities at SNL for the Integration of Small Modular Reactors onto Smart Microgrids Using Sandia's Smart Microgrid Technology High Performance Computing and Advanced Manufacturing.

Smart grids are a crucial component for enabling the nation’s future energy needs, as part of a modernization effort led by the Department of Energy. Smart grids and smart microgrids are being considered in niche applications, and as part of a comprehensive energy strategy to help manage the nation’s growing energy demands, for critical infrastructures, military installations, small rural communities, and large populations with limited water supplies. As part of a far-reaching strategic initiative, Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) presents herein a unique, three-pronged approach to integrate small modular reactors (SMRs) into microgrids, with the goal of providing economically-competitive, reliable, and secure energy to meet the nation’s needs. SNL’s triad methodology involves an innovative blend of smart microgrid technology, high performance computing (HPC), and advanced manufacturing (AM). In this report, Sandia’s current capabilities in those areas are summarized, as well as paths forward that will enable DOE to achieve its energy goals. In the area of smart grid/microgrid technology, Sandia’s current computational capabilities can model the entire grid, including temporal aspects and cyber security issues. Our tools include system development, integration, testing and evaluation, monitoring, and sustainment.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2020

U.S. Domestic Small Modular Reactor Security by Design

U.S. nuclear power facilities face increasing challenges in meeting evolving security requirements caused by evolving and expanding threats while keeping cost reasonable to make nuclear energy competitive. The addition of security features after a facility has been designed and without attention to optimization (the past approach) can lead to cost overruns. Incorporating security in the design process can provide robust, cost effective, and sufficient physical protection systems. The purpose of this work is to develop a framework for the integration of security into the design phase of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) and the use of modeling and simulation tools to optimize the design of physical protection systems. This effort will intend to integrate security into the design phase of a model SMR that meets current NRC physical protection requirements and provide advanced solutions to improve physical protection and decrease costs. A suite of tools, including SCRIBE3D, PATHTRACE and Blender were used to model a hypothetical generic domestic SMR facility. Physical protection elements such as sensors, cameras, portal monitors, barriers, and guard forces were added to the model based on best practices for physical protection systems. One outsider sabotage scenario was examined with 4-8 adversaries to determine security metrics. This work will influence physical protection system designs and facility designs for U.S. domestic SMRs. The purpose of this project is to demonstrate how a series of experimental and modeling capabilities across the Department of Energy Complex can impact the design of U.S. domestic SMRs and the complete Safeguards and Security by Design (SSBD) for SMRs.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Security-by-Design: Light Water Small Modular Reactor

The growing demand for nuclear power is increasing pressure to find solutions to cost prohibitive requirements of both construction and security. Offsite response has been proposed as an option to reduce costs associated with training and maintaining an onsite response force. A previous report explored this option and revealed that security could be provided at the required level, but cost savings was not a result of this methodology. An offsite response strategy required costly active and passive delay barriers to provide sufficient time for responders to muster and deploy to a site in time to interrupt a determined and well-equipped adversary. Also, contrary to the hypothesis, the number of responders required for this strategy exceeded that needed for an onsite response force, as the adversaries could avail themselves of advantageous positions within the facility to repel arriving responders. This report builds upon the previous evaluation by using the same hypothetical light water small modular reactor (LWSMR) facility model, but this time an onsite response strategy was assessed. The goal of this analysis was to show that an onsite response strategy could be implemented effectively at a cost point that removes barriers within the industry at this critical time of growth and development. The assessment of the facility design and response strategy was completed through modeling using Scribe3D© and subsequent scenario analysis over the course of a two-day tabletop exercise. Subject matter experts in nuclear security, nuclear facility design, and response strategy and tactics contributed to the effort to ensure accurate representation of hypothetical scenarios. Several adaptations were made to the layout of the LWSMR based on lessons learned during the first day of scenario analysis. The subsequent design evaluated on the second day proved to provide a robust response posture against a large and well-trained adversary force. This report details the process of the analysis and compares the cost of the final facility design with that of the LWSMR model used for evaluation of offsite response. Ultimately, the results of this effort indicate that, when implemented correctly, an onsite response strategy is the best option from a security and cost perspective.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2017

Power peaking with small modular reactors to support deep penetration of renewable energy sources - 192

As inherently intermittent sources of renewable energy more fully penetrate the US grid, peaking power is largely being supplied by carbon-emitting natural gas turbines. Significant greenhouse gas emissions can be avoided if these plants are replaced with carbon-neutral nuclear facilities to provide peaking power to complement renewable generation and meet overall power demand. There is a great deal of previous work regarding reactor power shaping with control rod movement for both currently operating nuclear power plants and proposed plants, but the literature on load-following to meet less predictable, more rapidly varying power demand is less comprehensive. We have chosen the Westinghouse IRIS integral PWR as our candidate for modeling, simulation, and control studies. A nodal model of the IRIS integral PWR, partially adapted from a MATLAB/Simulink model constructed by prior students at the University of Tennessee in Knoxville, has been constructed in Modelica. Currently the model includes the reactor vessel and steam generator system and simple assumptions for the balance of plant. The control scheme for the load-following operation of an IRIS integral PWR model would ultimately lead to the development of real operational mechanisms and principles in a grid with significant renewables capacity. In the future the model will be integrated with sophisticated grid and hybrid energy systems. (authors)

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Modeling Small Modular Reactors in GCAM

This study uses the Global Change Analysis Model (GCAM) to examine the critical role and future of nuclear energy in the global energy system, with a focus on the United States. We also analyzed the U.S. government’s new strategic vision for the nuclear energy sector.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2016

Conceptual System Design of a Supercritical CO{sub 2} cooled Micro Modular Reactor - 18492

Small modular reactor (SMR) concepts proposed in the past have compact size and a longer life reactor core than the conventional nuclear power plants. However, previous concepts based on the water-cooled technologies with a steam Rankine cycle have shown that the complete modularization is still technically challenging. This study suggests an innovative concept of a reactor directly cooled by supercritical carbon dioxide (S-CO{sub 2}) with S-CO{sub 2} Brayton cycle as a power conversion system, namely KAIST MMR (Micro Modular Reactor). To enhance neutron economy and maximize the fuel volume fraction of the core, a uranium carbide fuel controlled by drum type control rods was used in the fast-spectrum MMR. The core has long life (20 years) without refueling or reshuffling as well as inherent safety features. The reactor can be used as a distributed power source, and replace outdated fossil fuel power plants for small cities. Moreover, we propose a S-CO{sub 2} Brayton cycle as a power conversion system to achieve small, high performance and lightweight module. Thanks to the compact core and power conversion system, the entire system can be contained in a single module. The target of the system is to achieve small and compact system that can be transported via ground transportation of a single module containing the core and the power conversion system altogether. In order to meet this target single module s total weight is minimized in the order of 150 tons. The external size of a module is less than 7 m in length and 4 m in diameter. It produces 12 MWe electricity from 36 MWt reactor core. The S-CO{sub 2} Brayton cycle was optimized, and the cycle components were designed while maximizing the performance and minimizing the weight. A passive decay heat removal system utilizing shell and tube heat exchangers was also developed, and examined its performance with transient analysis code. (authors)

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Improving Thermal Management Strategies for Data Centers: A Physical Testbed Incorporating Small Modular Reactor and Microreactor Technology

This study aims to accelerate the demonstration of various thermal management systems for data centers using nuclear-generated heat to enhance energy and grid reliability. Utilizing mobile containerized and stationary test beds at INL's High Performance Computing (HPC) facility, this project integrates with various nuclear-related energy systems testing facilities. Key components include immersion cooling apparatus, absorption chillers, and adjustable thermal management simulators. Tasks involve acquiring necessary hardware, sensors, and cooling apparatus, engaging with data center industry stakeholders, and providing a testing platform for algorithms, models, tools, and software. The objective is to expedite the deployment of nuclear-powered data centers, thereby improving energy reliability and affordability.

21 - SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLAN↗
DOE OSTI2014

Human-System Interfaces (HSIs) in Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)

This book chapter describes the considerations for the selection of advanced human–system interfaces (HSIs) for the new generation of nuclear power plants. The chapter discusses the technologies that will be needed to support highly automated nuclear power plants, while minimising demands for numbers of operational staff, reducing human error and improving plant efficiency and safety. Special attention is paid to the selection and deployment of advanced technologies in nuclear power plants (NPPs). The chapter closes with an examination of how technologies are likely to develop over the next 10–15 years and how this will affect design choices for the nuclear industry.

99 GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Techno-economic analysis of advanced small modular nuclear reactors

Here, small modular nuclear reactors (SMRs) represent a robust opportunity to develop low-carbon and reliable power with the potential to meet cost parity with conventional power systems. This study presents a detailed, bottom-up economic evaluation of a 12 × 77 MW e (924 MW e total) light-water SMR (LW-SMR) plant, a 4 × 262 MW e (1,048 MW e ) gas-cooled SMR (GC-SMR) plant, and a 5 × 200 MW e (1,000 MW e total) molten salt SMR (MS-SMR) plant. Cost estimates are derived from equipment costs, labor hours, material inputs, and process-engineering models. The advanced SMRs are compared to natural gas combined cycle plants with and without post-combustion carbon capture and a conventional large nuclear reactor. Overnight capital cost (OCC) and levelized cost of energy (LCOE) estimates are developed. The OCC of the LW-SMR, GC-SMR, and MS-SMR are found to be $\$4,844$/kW, $\$4,355$/kW, and $\$3,985$/kW respectively. The LCOE of the LW-SMR, GC-SMR, and MS-SMR are found to be $\$89.6$/MWh, $\$81.5$/MWh, and $\$80.6$/MWh respectively. A Monte Carlo analysis is performed, for which the OCC and construction time of the LW-SMR is found to have a lower mean and standard deviation than a conventional large reactor. The LW-SMR OCC is found to have a mean of $\$5,233$/kW with a standard deviation of $\$658$/kW and a 90 % probability of remaining between $\$4,254$/kW and $\$6,399$/kW, while the construction duration is found to have a mean of 4.5 years with a standard deviation of 0.8 years and a 90 % probability of remaining between 3.4 and 6.0 years. The economic impact of economies of scale, simplification, modularization, and construction time for SMRs are discussed. Additionally, policy implications for direct SMR capital subsidies and the impact of a carbon tax on natural gas emissions are explored.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Lead-Bismuth Small Modular Reactor (SMR) Licensing Development [Abstract]

The Columbia Basin Consulting Group (CBCG) is developing an advanced reactor cooled by Lead-Bismuth (Pb-Bi). The design is being developed for a high level of passive safety. It has the advantages of the classical liquid metal (sodium) reactor, i.e. small size and passive safety, while having the additional advantage of chemically inert coolant.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Outreach to Industry on Safeguards by Design Concept for Small Modular Reactors

"Safeguards by Design" (SBD) is the process of incorporating safeguards features into the design of a nuclear facility during the design stage. The goal of SBD is to increase the safeguardability of a facility, which is a qualitative measure of the degree of ease with which a nuclear energy system can be effectively and efficiently placed under international safeguards. During the past decade, the National Nuclear Security Administration's (NNSA) Next Generation Safeguards Initiative funded the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), Brookhaven National Laboratory, and several consultants to develop the Facility Safeguardability Assessment (FSA) process. FSA is a screening process used by a facility designer to focus attention on the aspects of their facility or process design that would most benefit from application of SBD principles and practices. The process identifies the most relevant guidance within the SBD tools for enhancing the safeguardability of the design. During FY 2014, NNSA sponsored BNL and LANL to introduce the FSA to Westinghouse designers of their small modular nuclear power plant design. This report documents the interactions with Westinghouse Electric Company LLC ("Westinghouse") staff. The report describes the Westinghouse safeguards design concept with a view towards eventual application of the FSA to their design.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2018

Means of Meeting Chapter 15 Requirements for a Small Modular Reactor Cooled by Lead-Bismuth

The mission of the Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Energy (DOE-NE) is to advance nuclear power as a resource capable of meeting the nation’s energy, environmental, and national security needs by resolving technical, cost, safety, proliferation resistance, and security barriers through Research, Development, and Demonstration (RD&D). To assist in accomplishing this, DOE-NE has established the Gateway for Accelerated Innovation in Nuclear (GAIN) to provide the nuclear community with access to the technical, regulatory, and financial support necessary to move innovative nuclear energy technologies toward commercialization. As part of this program, a GAIN Voucher was awarded to the Columbia Basin Consulting Group (CBCG) to develop for the Lead-Bismuth Reactor (LBR): (1) a means of meeting Chapter 15 requirements and (2) to perform an assessment against a gap analysis developed by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) for Chapter 15. These two assessments will determine to what extent the LBR can adapt to or meet the Chapter 15 Accident Analysis requirements, and determine gaps that may still exist and what additional information is needed in order to close them. The CBCG LBR design is being developed with a high level of passive safety. It has the advantages of the classical liquid metal reactor, i.e. small size and passive safety, while having the additional advantage of a chemically inert coolant. The CBCG and the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) collaborated to develop an initial licensing pathway for the CBCG Lead-Bismuth conceptual reactor design. It was found that the reactor is well along the licensing pathway and is licensable although some additional design information is needed to establish a complete licensing basis. The missing information is identified in this report and it is noted that much of the missing information can be obtained from the Fast Flux Test Facility (FFTF), a DOE liquid metal test reactor. It was also found that the traditional Chapter 15 requirements for assessing the response of a reactor to possible accident sequences can be adapted to the LBR concept. The Chapter 15 review examined several classes of initiating events and accidents that are normally covered in Chapter 15: reactivity initiated events, reduction in heat removal events, local fuel failure events, and events initiated on the steam supply side. Although some design information is lacking at present, the LBR can be expected to respond as required by Chapter 15 requirements to almost all of the first three events. For events initiated on the steam side, design information is lacking and so conclusions cannot be reached at present. On the other hand, it should be quite possible to develop the design information for the steam supply side and the impact of events initiated on this side can be assessed in a subsequent study.

Wootan, David W.↗