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NASA NTRS2020

Performance of NOAA-20 VIIRS Solar Diffuser and Solar Diffuser Stability Monitor

Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) radiometrically calibrates its reflective solar bands (RSBs) primarily through a sunlit onboard solar diffuser (SD). The sunlit SD provides a known radiance under the condition that the absolute product of the SD screen transmittance and the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) along the SD-to-telescope direction is accurately known. The BRDF changes due to solar exposure. The change, referred to as the H-factor, is monitored by the onboard SD stability monitor (SDSM). The accuracy of the retrieved H-factor propagates to the retrieved F-factor which corrects the scene spectral radiance. High accuracy of the retrieved H-factor relies on high accuracies in the SDSM screen relative effective transmittance and the relative product of the SD screen effective transmittance and the BRDF at the mission start, and a high SDSM detector signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). This article briefly reviews the algorithms used for the NOAA-20 (N20) VIIRS RSB on-orbit radiometric calibration. Additionally, we show the performance of the N20 VIIRS SDSM, giving the SDSM detector SNRs and the SDSM detector gain temporal changes. We develop a model for the SNRs. The model shows that the decreased SNRs in time are due to the detector gain decreases. We also show the N20 VIIRS SD on-orbit performance, measured by the retrieved H-factor and the estimated standard deviation of its error. The H-factor for the telescope view is obtained from the H-factor for the SDSM view, multiplied by an H-factor angular dependence term. We use an innovative method to determine the angular dependence, using the dependence obtained for the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (SNPP) VIIRS.

VIIRS↗
NASA NTRS2022

JPSS-2 VIIRS Pre-Launch Reflective Solar Band Testing and Performance

The Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) instruments on-board the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (S-NPP) and Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) spacecrafts 1 and 2 provides calibrated sensor data record (SDR) reflectance, radiance, and brightness temperatures for use in environment data record (EDR) products. The SDRs and EDRs are used in weather forecasting models, weather imagery and climate applications such as ocean color, sea surface temperature and active fires. The VIIRS has 22 bands covering a spectral range 0.4–12.4 m with resolutions of 375 m and 750 m for imaging and moderate bands respectively on four focal planes. The bands are stratified into three different types based on the source of energy sensed by the bands. The reflective solar bands (RSBs) detect sunlight reflected from the Earth, thermal emissive bands (TEBs) sense emitted energy from the Earth and the day/night band (DNB) detects both solar and lunar reflected energy from the Earth. The SDR calibration uses a combination of pre-launch testing and the solar diffuser (SD), on-board calibrator blackbody (OBCBB) and space view (SV) on-orbit calibrator sources. The pre-launch testing transfers the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) traceable calibration to the SD, for the RSB, and the OBCBB, for the TEB. Post-launch, the on-board calibrators track the changes in instrument response and adjust the SDR product as necessary to maintain the calibration. This paper will discuss the pre-launch radiometric calibration portion of the SDR calibration for the RSBs that includes the dynamic range, detector noise, calibration coefficients and radiometric uncertainties for JPSS-2 VIIRS.

JPSS↗
NASA NTRS1978

Load and dynamic assessment of B-52B-008 carrier aircraft for finned configuration 1 space shuttle solid rocket booster decelerator subsystem drop test vehicle. Volume 1: Summary

The B-52B airplane was identified for use in solid rocket booster (RSB) parachute drop flight testing. The purpose of this study was to determine by theoretical analysis methods the compatability and structural capability of B-52B drop test vehicle configuration (with fins) to accomplish the drop test mission. This document consist of four volumes. This volume presents a summary of airplane flutter and load strength evaluation analysis results and a comparative study of the pylon loading resulting from drop test vehicle inertia and aerodynamic considerations.

Quade, D. A.↗
NASA NTRS1994

A uniform geometrical optics and an extended uniform geometrical theory of diffraction for evaluating high frequency EM fields near smooth caustics and composite shadow boundaries

A uniform geometrical optics (UGO) and an extended uniform geometrical theory of diffraction (EUTD) are developed for evaluating high frequency electromagnetic (EM) fields within transition regions associated with a two and three dimensional smooth caustic of reflected rays and a composite shadow boundary formed by the caustic termination or the confluence of the caustic with the reflection shadow boundary (RSB). The UGO is a uniform version of the classic geometrical optics (GO). It retains the simple ray optical expressions of classic GO and employs a new set of uniform reflection coefficients. The UGO also includes a uniform version of the complex GO ray field that exists on the dark side of the smooth caustic. The EUTD is an extension of the classic uniform geometrical theory of diffraction (UTD) and accounts for the non-ray optical behavior of the UGO reflected field near caustics by using a two-variable transition function in the expressions for the edge diffraction coefficients. It also uniformly recovers the classic UTD behavior of the edge diffracted field outside the composite shadow boundary transition region. The approach employed for constructing the UGO/EUTD solution is based on a spatial domain physical optics (PO) radiation integral representation for the fields which is then reduced using uniform asymptotic procedures. The UGO/EUTD analysis is also employed to investigate the far-zone RCS problem of plane wave scattering from two and three dimensional polynomial defined surfaces, and uniform reflection, zero-curvature, and edge diffraction coefficients are derived. Numerical results for the scattering and diffraction from cubic and fourth order polynomial strips are also shown and the UGO/EUTD solution is validated by comparison to an independent moment method (MM) solution. The UGO/EUTD solution is also compared with the classic GO/UTD solution. The failure of the classic techniques near caustics and composite shadow boundaries is clearly demonstrated and it is shown that the UGO/EUTD results remain valid and uniformly reduce to the classic results away from the transition regions. Mathematical details on the asymptotic properties and efficient numerical evaluation of the canonical functions involved in the UGO/EUTD expressions are also provided.

Constantinides, E. D.↗
NASA NTRS2004

MODIS On-orbit Calibration: Key Issues and Approaches

MODIS, one of the key instruments for the NASA's Earth Observing System (EOS), is currently operating on both the Terra and Aqua spacecraft making continuous observations in 36 spectral bands from 0.4 to 14.4 micrometers. A complete suite of on-board calibrators (OBC) have been designed for the instruments' on-orbit calibration and characterization, including a solar diffuser (SD) and solar diffuser stability monitor (SDSM) system for the radiometric calibration of the 20 reflective solar bands (RSB), a blackbody (BB) for the radiometric calibration of the 16 thermal emissive bands (TEZB), and a spectro-radiometric calibration assembly (SRCA) for the sensors' spatial and spectral characterization. The task of continuously performing high quality on-orbit calibration and characterization of all 36 spectral bands with a total of 490 detectors located on four focal plane assemblies is extremely challenging. The use of a large two-sided paddle wheel scan mirror with a +/- 55 deg scan angle range and a retractable pinhole attenuation screen in front of the SD panel for calibrating the high gain bands have resulted in additional unanticipated complexity. In this paper, we describe some of the key issues in the Terra and Aqua MODIS on-orbit calibration and characterization, and discuss the methods developed to solve these problems or to reduce their impact on the Level 1B calibration algorithms. Instrument performance and current issues are also presented.

Xiong, Xian-Xiong↗
NASA NTRS2004

MODIS On-orbit Spectral Calibration for the Reflective Solar Bands

The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) makes observations in 36 spectral bands with wavelengths from 0.41 to 14.5 microns. The bands with center wavelengths below 2.2 microns are referred as the reflective solar bands (RSB) with their radiometric calibration performed by a solar diffuser (SD) and a solar diffuser stability monitor (SDSM). This paper focuses on the MODIS spectral calibration performed by its unique on-board calibrator (OBC): the Spectro-Radiometric Calibration Assembly (SRCA). When operated in the spectral mode, the SRCA acts as a monochromator with internal spherical integration source (SIS) that measures the spectral responses for all the reflective solar bands. A wavelength calibrator, a didymium filter with known spectral profile, is utilized to calibrate the wavelength scale for the grating positions during each SRCA spectral calibration activity. The capability of self-wavelength calibration allows the SRCA to track the center wavelength shifts and to monitor the spectral response changes throughout the instruments lifetime. The MODIS spectral calibration, same for both Terra and Aqua missions, is performed every three months on-orbit. An overview of MODIS spectral characterization approach and a summary of the on-orbit results will be presented in this paper.

Xiong, X.↗
NASA NTRS2006

Pitting and Repair of the Space Shuttle's Inconel(Registered TradeMark) Honeycomb Conical Seal Panel

During return to flight servicing of the rudder speed brake (RSB) for each Space Shuttle Orbiter, inspectors discovered numerous small pits on the surface of the #4 right hand side honeycomb panel that covers the rudder speed brake actuators. Shortly after detection of the problem, concurrent investigations were initiated to determine the extent of damage, the root cause, and to develop a repair plan, since fabrication of a replacement panel is impractical for cost, schedule, and sourcing considerations. This paper describes the approach, findings, conclusions and recommendations associated with the investigation of the conical seal pitting. It documents the cause and contributing factors of the pitting, the means used to isolate each contributor, and the supporting evidence for the primary cause of the pitting. Finally, the selection, development and verification of the repair procedure used to restore the conical seal panel is described with supporting process and metallurgical rationale for selection.

Zimmerman, Frank R.↗
NASA NTRS2006

An Overview of Inter-comparison Methodologies for Terra and Aqua MODIS Calibration

With increasing efforts on data fusion and long-term climate data records (CDR) using observations made by multiple sensors, on the same or different platforms, their cross-calibration and validation work has become more and more important. The uncertainties of the climate models and data records depend not only on the calibration quality of individual sensors but also on their calibration consistency. This paper provides an overview of methodologies used by the MODIS Characterization Support Team (MCST) at NASA GSFC for the inter-comparison studies of Terra and Aqua MODIS on-orbit calibration. Each MODIS was built with a set of onboard calibrators (OBC) that include a blackbody (BB), a solar diffuser (SD), and a solar diffuser stability monitor (SDSM). The BB is primarily used for the thermal emissive bands (TEB) calibration and the SD/SDSM system for the reflective solar bands (RSB) calibration. Although the-instrument design and calibration approach are nearly identical for both Terra and Aqua MODIS and they all went through an extensive and similar pre-launch calibration and characterization process, still their on-orbit calibration consistency needs to be carefully examined and validated as many science products have been generated from observations made by both instruments. Methodologies discussed in this paper include inter-comparison studies using the Moon, a third sensor, and ground targets. Our results show that Terra and Aqua reflective solar bands and thermal emissive bands have been calibrated consistently with excellent long-term stabilities. For the 11 and 12 micrometers sea surface temperature (SST) bands, the calibration difference of Terra and Aqua MODIS is less than 0.2K.

Xiong, X.↗
NASA NTRS2006

Results and Lessons from MODIS Thermal Emissive Bands Calibration: Pre-launch to On-orbit

MODIS is a major instrument for the NASA EOS Terra (launched in December 1999) and Aqua (launched in May 2002) missions. It was designed and built to enhance and extend its heritage sensors' measurements and data records with applications covering a wide range of studies of the Earth's land, oceans, and atmosphere. Its 16 thermal emissive bands (TEB), each with 10 detectors, are located on the two cold focal plane assemblies (FPAs) controlled by a passive radiative cooler. Because of instrument design complexity and stringent calibration requirements, extensive calibration and characterization activities were conducted pre-launch by the sensor vendor for both Terra and Aqua MODIS. For TEB, these activities include characterization of detectors' noise and non-linearity and evaluation of their radiometric performance in thermal vacuum at difference instrument temperatures and FPA temperatures. In addition TEB system level response versus scan-angle (RVS) and relative spectral response (RSR) were characterized. MODIS TEB radiometric calibration transfer from pre-launch to on-orbit was performed using spectral bands' responses to the instrument on-board blackbody and a laboratory blackbody calibration source (BCS) traceable to NIST standards. This paper provides a summary of MODIS TEB pre-launch and on-orbit calibration and characterization activities, challenges, data analysis results, and lessons learned with focus on sensors' radiometric performance. A comparison between Terra and Aqua MODIS TEB performance is also presented. A similar summary for the reflective solar bands (RSB) is reported in a separate paper in these proceedings.

Xiong, X.↗
NASA NTRS2007

Multiyear On-orbit Calibration and Performance of Terra MODIS Thermal Emissive Bands

Since launch in December 1999, Terra MODIS has been making continuous Earth observations for more than seven years. It has produced a broad range of land, ocean, and atmospheric science data products for improvements in studies of global climate and environmental change. Among its 36 spectral bands, there are 20 reflective solar bands (RSB) and 16 thermal emissive bands (TEB). MODIS thermal emissive bands cover the mid-wave infrared (MWIR) and long-wave infrared (LWIR) spectral regions with wavelengths from 3.7 to 14.4pm. They are calibrated on-orbit using an on-board blackbody (BB) with its temperature measured by a set of thermistors on a scan-by-scan basis. This paper will provide a brief overview of MODIS TEB calibration and characterization methodologies and illustrate on-board BB functions and TEB performance over more than seven years of on-orbit operation and calibration. Discussions will be focused on TEB detector short-term stability and noise characterization, and changes in long-term response (or system gain). Results show that Terra MODIS BB operation has been extremely stable since launch. When operated at its nominal controlled temperature of 290K, the BB temperature variation is typically less than +0.30mK on a scan-by-scan basis and there has been no time-dependent temperature drift. In addition to excellent short-term stability, most TEB detectors continue to meet or exceed their specified noise characterization requirements, thus enabling calibration accuracy and science data product quality to be maintained. Excluding the noisy detectors identified pre-launch and those that occurred post-launch, the changes in TEB responses have been less than 0.7% on an annual basis. The optical leak corrections applied to bands 32-36 have been effective and stable over the entire mission

Xiong, Xiaoxiong↗
NASA NTRS2007

MODIS Pre-launch and On-orbit Calibration

Two nearly identical MODIS instruments are currently operated on-orbit: one on-board the EOS Terra spacecraft launched in December 1999 and the other on-board the Aqua spacecraft launched in May 2002. Both sensors went through extensive pre-launch calibration and characterization activities that had provided many critically important parameters and sensor characteristics in support of their on-orbit operation and calibration. On-orbit each MODIS instrument is calibrated and characterized via a set of on-board calibrators (OBC) that include a solar diffuser (SD), a solar diffuser stability monitor (SDSM), a blackbody (BB), and a spectroradiometric calibration assembly (SRCA). This paper provides an overview of MODIS calibration and characterization methodologies and measurements performed, pre-launch and on-orbit, for both the reflective solar bands (RSB) and thermal emissive bands (TEB). It discusses issues on the calibration transfer from ground to on-board and from pre-launch to on-orbit, and illustrates the calibration consistency between Terra and Aqua MODIS. Examples in three key areas, radiometric, spatial, and spectral, are presented. Also addressed in the paper are the challenges and lessons learned during MODIS pre-launch and on-orbit calibration and performance.

Xiong, X.↗
NASA NTRS2009

Performance of MODIS Thermal Emissive Bands On-orbit Calibration Algorithms

Two nearly identical copies of the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) are currently operated on-board the Terra and Aqua spacecrafts, launched in December 1999 and May 2002, respectively. Together, they have produced an unprecedented amount of science data products, which are widely used for the studies of changes in the Earth's system of land, oceans, and atmosphere. MODIS is a cross-track scanning radiometer, which uses a two-sided scan mirror and collects data continuously over a wide scan angle range (+/-55 degree relative to the instrument nadir) each scan of 1.47 seconds. It has 36 spectral bands with wavelengths ranging from visible (VIS) to long-wave infrared (LWIR). MODIS bands 1-19 and 26 are the reflective solar bands (RSB) and bands 20-25 and 27-36 are the thermal emissive bands (TEB). MODIS was developed and designed with improvements made over its heritage sensors (such as AVHRR and Landsat) and, in particular, with more stringent calibration requirements. Because of this, MODIS was built with a set of state-of-art on-board calibrators (OBC), which include a solar diffuser (SD), a solar diffuser stability monitor (SDSM), a blackbody (BB), a spectroradiometric calibration assembly (SRCA), and a space view (SV) port. With the exception of view angle differences, MODIS OBC measurements and the Earth View (EV) observations are made via the same optical path. MODIS TEB have a total of 160 individual TEB detectors (10 per band), which are located on two cold focal plane assemblies (CFPA). For nominal on-orbit operation, the CFPA temperature is controlled at 83K via a passive radiative cooler. For the TEB, the calibration requirements at specified typical scene radiances are less than or equal to 1% with an exception for the fire detection (low gain) band. MODIS TEB on-orbit calibration is performed on a scan-by-scan basis using a quadratic calibration algorithm, and data collected from sensor responses to the onboard BB and SV. The BB serves as the thermal calibration source and the SV provides measurements for the sensor's background and offsets. MODIS on-board BB is a v-grooved plate with its temperature measured using 12 platinum resistive thermistors (PRT) uniformly embedded in the BB substrate. All the BB thermistors were characterized pre-launch with reference to the NIST temperature standards. Unlike typical BB operations in many heritage sensors, which have no temperature control capability, the MODIS on-board BB can be operated at any temperatures between instrument ambient (about 270K) and 315K and can also be varied continuously within this range. This feature has significantly enhanced the MODIS' capability of tracking and updating the TEB nonlinear calibration coefficients over its entire mission. Following a brief description of MODIS TEB on-orbit calibration methodologies and its onboard BB operational activities, this paper provides a comprehensive performance assessment of MODIS TEB quadratic calibration algorithm. It examines the scan-by-scan, orbit-by-orbit, daily, and seasonal variations of detector responses and associated impact due changes in the CFPA and instrument temperatures. Specifically, this paper will analyze the contribution by each individual thermal emissive source term (BB, scan cavity, and scan mirror), the impact on the Level 1 B data product quality due to pre-launch and on-orbit calibration uncertainties. A comparison of Terra and Aqua TEB on-orbit performance, lessons learned, and suggestions for future improvements will also be made.

Xiong, Xiaoxiong↗
NASA NTRS2010

Characterization of MODIS Solar Diffuser On-Orbit Degradation

MODIS reflective solar bands (RSB) are calibrated using a solar diffuser (SD). The SD on-orbit degradation is determined by a solar diffuser stability monitor (SDSM) at 9 wavelengths from 0.41 to 0.94 microns via alternate observations of its sunlight reflected from the SD (SD view) and direct sunlight through an attenuation screen (Sun view). For each SDSM detector, a time series of ratios of its SD view to its Sun view responses tracks on-orbit changes in the SD bidirectional reflectance factor (BRF) at its wavelength. Due to an SDSM component design error, however, there exist large ripples in its Sun view responses, which have made it extremely difficult to use the original ratio approach for accurate characterization of SD on-orbit degradation. In order to mitigate the impact due to unexpected ripples, MODIS Characterization Support Team (MCST) developed a normalization approach. It relies on the fact that all SDSM detectors (D1 to D9) experience similar ripples and assumes that the SD degradation at its D9 wavelength (0.94 micron) is extremely small and can be ignored. As mission continues, the normalization approach becomes inadequate since the accumulated SD degradation at 0.94[tm can no longer be ignored. This paper presents a new approach to further improve on-orbit characterization of SD degradation. It uses a took-up table (LUT) with parameters derived from D9 observations made over a short period. Compared to other approaches, this approach can significantly reduce the impact due to ripples and that due to accumulated SD degradation at the reference detector wavelength.

Xiong, X.↗
NASA NTRS2009

Using Dome C for Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer Calibration Stability and Consistency

Currently, there are two nearly identical moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) instruments operated in space: one on the Terra spacecraft launched in December 1999 and another on the Aqua spacecraft launched in May 2002. MODIS has 36 spectral bands with wavelengths covering from visible (VIS) to long-wave infrared (LWIR). Since launch, M0DIS observations and data products have significantly enabled studies of changes in the Earth system of land, oceans, and atmosphere. In order to maintain its on-orbit calibration and data product quality, MODIS was built with a comprehensive set of on-board calibrators. MODIS reflective solar bands (RSB) are calibrated on-orbit by a system that consists of a solar diffuser (SD) and a solar diffuser stability monitor(SDSM) on a regular basis. Its thermal emissive bands (TEB) calibration is executed on a scan-by-scan basis using an on-board blackbody (BB). The MODIS Characterization Support Team (MCST) at NASA/GSFC has been responsible for supporting sensor calibration and characterization tasks from pre-launch to post launch. In this paper,we describe current MCST efforts and progress made to examine sensor stability and intercalibration consistency using observations over Dome Concordia, Antarctica. Results show that this site can provide useful calibration reference for Earth-observing sensors.

Xiong, Xiaoxiong↗
NASA NTRS2009

Characterization of MODIS and SeaWiFS Solar Diffuser On-Orbit Degradation

MODIS has 20 reflective solar bands (RSB), covering the VIS, NIR, and SWIR spectral regions. They are calibrated on-orbit using a solar diffuser (SD) panel, made of space-grade Spectralon. The SD bi-directional reflectance factor (BRF) was characterized pre-launch by the instrument vendor reference to the NIST reflectance standard. Its on-orbit degradation is tracked by an on-board solar diffuser stability monitor (SDSM). The SeaWifS on-orbit calibration strategy uses monthly lunar observations to monitor the long-term radiometric stability of the instrument and applies daily observations of its solar diffuser (an aluminum plate coated with YB71 paint) to track the short-term changes in the instrument response. This paper provides an overview of MODIS and SeaWiFS SD observations, applications, and approaches used to track their on-orbit degradations. Results from sensors are presented with emphasis on the spectral dependence and temporal trends of the SD degradation. Lessons and challenges from the use of SD for sensor on-orbit calibration are also discussed.

Xiong, X.↗
NASA NTRS2009

On-Orbit Operation and Performance of MODIS Blackbody

MODIS collects data in 36 spectral bands, including 20 reflective solar bands (RSB) and 16 thermal emissive bands (TES). The TEB on-orbit calibration is performed on a scan-by-scan basis using a quadratic algorithm that relates the detector response with the calibration radiance from the sensor on-board blackbody (BB). The calibration radiance is accurately determined each scan from the BB temperature measured using a set of 12 thermistors. The BB thermistors were calibrated pre-launch with traceability to the NIST temperature standard. Unlike many heritage sensors, the MODIS BB can be operated at a constant temperature or with the temperature continuously varying between instrument ambient (about 270K) and 315K. In this paper, we provide an overview of both Terra and Aqua MODIS on-board BB operations, functions, and on-orbit performance. We also examine the impact of key calibration parameters, such as BB emissivity and temperature (stability and gradient) determined from its thermistors, on the TEB calibration and Level I (LIB) data product uncertainty.

Xiong, X.↗
NASA NTRS2010

Using Lunar Observations to Assess Terra MODIS Thermal Emissive Bands Calibration

MODIS collects data in both the reflected solar and thermal emissive regions using 36 spectral bands. The center wavelengths of these bands cover the3.7 to 14.24 micron region. In addition to using its on-board calibrators (OBC), which include a full aperture solar diffuser (SD) and a blackbody (BB), lunar observations have been scheduled on a regular basis to support both Terra and Aqua MODIS on-orbit calibration and characterization. This paper provides an overview of MODIS lunar observations and their applications for the reflective solar bands (RSB) and thermal emissive bands (TEB) with an emphasis on potential calibration improvements of MODIS band 21 at 3.96 microns. This spectral band has detectors set with low gains to enable fire detection. Methodologies are proposed and examined on the use of lunar observations for the band 21 calibration. Also presented in this paper are preliminary results derived from Terra MODIS lunar observations and remaining challenging issues.

Xiong, Xiaoxiong↗
NASA NTRS2010

Aqua MODIS 8-Year On-Orbit Operation and Calibration

Launched in May 2002, the NASA EOS Aqua MODIS has successfully operated for more than 8 years. Observations from Aqua MODIS and its predecessor, Terra MODIS, have generated an unprecedented amount of data products and made significant contributions to studies of changes in the Earth s system of land, oceans, and atmosphere. MODIS collects data in 36 spectral bands: 20 reflective solar bands (RSB) and 16 thermal emissive bands (TEB). It has a set of on-board calibrators (OBC), providing sensor on-orbit radiometric, spectral, and spatial calibration and characterization. This paper briefly summarizes Aqua MODIS on-orbit operation and calibration activities and illustrates instrument on-orbit performance from launch to present. Discussions are focused on OBC functions and changes in detector radiometric gains, spectral responses, and spatial registrations. With ongoing calibration effort, Aqua MODIS will continue serving the science community with high quality data products

Xiong, Xiaoxiong↗